<p>Rancho Camulos, now known as Rancho Camulos Museum, is a ranch located in the Santa Clara River Valley 2.2 mi east of Piru, California and just north of the Santa Clara River, in Ventura County, California. It was the home of Ygnacio del Valle, a Californio alcalde of the Pueblo de Los Angeles in the 19th century and later elected member of the California State Assembly. The ranch was known as the Home of Ramona because it was widely believed to have been the setting of the popular 1884 novel Ramona by Helen Hunt Jackson. The novel helped to raise awareness about the Californio lifestyle and romanticized "the mission and rancho era of California history."</p><br>
<p>The 1,800 acre working ranch is a prime example of an early California rancho in its original rural setting. It was the source of the first commercially grown oranges in Ventura County. It is one of the few remaining citrus growers in Southern California.</p><br>
<p>State Route 126 bisects the property, with most of the main buildings located south of the highway, and a few buildings on the north. The main adobe is one of the few extant Spanish Colonial buildings left in the state. Most of the other buildings are done in Mission Revival or Spanish Colonial Revival styles, both of which are derivatives of the original.</p><br>
<p>Rancho Camulos is designated a National Historic Landmark, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and has also been designated as a California Historical Landmark. Many of the buildings and grounds are open to the public as a museum of this period in California history.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1769, the Spanish Portola expedition, the first Europeans known to see inland areas of California, traveled downriver by boat and camped by the Santa Clara River on August 10. Their exact location is unknown but this area was later included in the territory of Rancho Camulos. Fray Juan Crespi, a Franciscan missionary traveling with the expedition, named the valley Cañada de Santa Clara.</p><br>
<p>The indigenous Tataviam people had a village here named Kamulus (meaning "juniper".) The area was used as early as 1804 by Mission San Fernando Rey de España for growing crops and as a grazing area for livestock. The population of this relatively isolated area (only traversed by the El Camino Real), as recorded by William Edward Petty Hartnell during his inspection of the mission in 1839, was 416. It was included in the 48,612 acre Rancho San Francisco granted to Del Valle&#39;s father, Antonio del Valle, administrator of Mission San Fernando, by Governor Juan B. Alvarado on January 22, 1839, after the secularization of the missions.</p><br>
<p>After Antonios death in 1841, his son Ygnacio inherited Rancho San Francisco. This action was challenged in court by his fathers second wife. Nevertheless, by 1853 Del Valle constructed a four-room adobe house and a corral at Camulos. By 1857, the land title dispute was settled. Ygnacio got the western portion and the remainder was split among Antonio&#39;s children and his second wife. Del Valle bought back some of the other portions from his family, as well as the neighboring Rancho Temescal to the north, and began livestock operations on the expanded area.</p><br>
<p>The younger Del Valle and his family did not live on the ranch initially, instead settling in a house on what is now Olvera Street in Los Angeles. The Del Valle family did not move back to Camulos, which he had expanded, until 1861. During this time, the ranch was overseen by José Antonio Salazar, Del Valle&#39;s majordomo. Although the rancho was associated with Ramona and Mexican California, the house was not constructed until after the United States acquired the territory and California was admitted as a state. The Del Valle family never lived there under Mexican rule.</p><br>
<p>In the 1860s, a drought forced Del Valle to sell off much of his land, but he retained Camulos and prospered there. By the time of his death in 1880, he had expanded the house to twenty rooms, and the compound had become a self-sustaining ranch, complete with a brick winery, chapel, barn and workers housing. Records indicate that in 1870 the ranch was largest vintner in the area. A stagecoach line opened in 1874 and in 1887, Southern Pacific ran a rail line past the ranch, including a depot at Camulos, ending the ranchs isolation.</p><br>
<p>In 1908, the Del Valle Company was incorporated by Ygnacio&#39;s children, but by 1924, they had sold the property to August Rübel, a native of Zürich, Switzerland. Upon its sale, the Los Angeles Times lamented that:</p><br>
<p>An era in the history of California closed yesterday. The Del Valles of Camulos bade farewell to the homestead where they have lived in successive generations since Antonio del Valle. It was the passing of the old regime. They are said to be the last of the old Spanish families who held in unbroken succession to the ancestral acres.</p><br>
<p>Rübel continued operating the ranch in the same manner as the Del Valles, employing many of same workers. He had served in the American Field Service during World War I and when World War II broke out, he volunteered for active duty again. He died while serving in Tunisia in 1943. After his death, his widow Mary married a man named Edwin Burger, who was not as interested in maintaining the rancho. After Marys death in 1968, Burger closed the ranch entirely. The buildings and grounds were left untended for years. Rübels heirs regained control of the property after the 1994 Northridge earthquake, which had damaged a number of buildings on the rancho.</p><br>
<p>The Rübel family restored commercial citrus production and set about repairing the earthquake damage. They successfully lobbied to have Camulos listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996. In 2000, it was further designated a National Historic Landmark. Although the main house was restored in 1996, funding was not available to restore the smaller buildings until 2006, with construction completed in spring 2007. The rancho is on State Route 126, but little is visible from the highway.</p><br>
<p>The driveway/parking lot and grounds immediate to the highway were used as a filming location for the 1970 science-fiction television movie The Love War.</p><br>
<h3>Agricultural development</h3><br>
<p>Del Valle acquired his first Valencia orange seedlings in 1857 from his friend William Wolfskill. The fruit from these trees was the first to be commercially grown in what is now Ventura County, although this was relatively small scale because the crops had to be taken by wagon to Los Angeles. A Southern Pacific line opened in 1876 seventeen miles (27 km) to the east in Saugus, providing a more convenient form of transport.</p><br>
<p>However, the primary agricultural product from Rancho Camulos was wine. Ninety acres (360,000 m²) of vineyards were planted in the 1860s and Camulos wines and brandies were known throughout Los Angeles and Santa Barbara.</p><br>
<p>Over the years, the vineyards were replaced by other fruits. Today, about 600 acre are under cultivation, most of it oranges, but lemons, grapefruit, and avocados are grown too. This makes Camulos a rare instance of a surviving citrus operation. During the years 1920&ndash;45, the citrus industry underwent a period of great growth. In contrast to the natural desert-like conditions of the area, photographs of "citrus belts" were publicized that helped establish the image of Southern California for the nation as an idyllic farmland. After World War II, urban and suburban development displaced much of the Southern California citrus production, with the notable exception of the Santa Clara River Valley.</p><br>
<h3>Ramona</h3><br>
<p>Ramona, published in 1884, was based in part on experiences that Helen Hunt Jackson had had during her visit to Rancho Camulos in 1882. Jackson spent only two hours on the ranch and did not meet Ysabel del Valle, but she had a keen eye for details and used many of her observations in the novel. For example, the altar cloth in the rancho&#39;s chapel had a small tear in it which had been mended. In the novel, the character Margarita accidentally tears the altar cloth, and Ramona sews it back together. The book became extremely popular and inspired a great deal of tourism, which was stimulated by the improved access possible due to the opening of Southern Pacific railroad lines in Southern California.</p><br>
<p>With all of the interest generated by the book, a number of communities declared that they were the setting for the novel in order to cash in on the boom, most notably Rancho Guajome in San Diego County, which Jackson had also visited prior to writing her book. However, the location of the fictional Moreno Ranch, "midway in the valley to the east and west, which had once belonged to the Missions of San Fernando and San Bonaventura" corresponds to the location of Rancho Camulos, and the physical description of some of the buildings on the fictional ranch accurately describe buildings at Camulos. On the other hand, relative to the other locations in the novel (Ramonas having been married in San Diego and Alessandros family being from the Temecula area), Camulos seems too distant to be the real location. Jackson died in 1885, never having publicly disclosed what locations she drew from for the book. Historians today are unsure whether Moreno Ranch represented a historic site.</p><br>
<p>By 1886, many readers and observers already considered Camulos to be the setting of the novel. Edward Roberts published an article entitled, "Ramonas Home: A Visit to the Camulos Ranch, and to the Scenes Described by H.H.&#39;" in the May 13, 1886 edition of the San Francisco Chronicle. Significantly, he was one of the first to publish an account that blended fact and fiction. The inclusion of his article as an appendix to later versions of the novel only served to cement that association.</p><br>
<p>The first book solely devoted to Ramona and the ranch was published in 1888 by Charles Fletcher Lummis, a close friend of the Del Valles and an admirer of their daughter, the teenage Susana Carmen (nicknamed "Susanita") del Valle. Lummis took photographs of the buildings and published them in his own book, Home of Ramona: Photographs of Camulos, the Fine Old Spanish Estate Described by Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson as the Home of "Ramona". He emphasized that the Del Valles were nothing like the fictional Morenos, who treated Ramona poorly, but he too would mix fact with fiction. For instance, he wrote, " is about a hundred feet in length and runs from the door of Father Salvierderras room to that of Ramonas room."</p><br>
<p>Lummiss goal was to discourage the novels association with other properties. For the same purpose, Adam Clark Vromans Ramona Illustrated: The Genesis of the Story of Ramona compared photographs of the ranchos buildings and environs with text from the novel, as well as photographs from competing locations. By 1909, George Wharton James could confidently declare that Camulos was the "avowed and accepted home of the heroine".</p><br>
<p>Despite the lack of easy access to the ranch and any lodging in the area, tourists flocked to this site. The 1887 completion of the Southern Pacific line increased the number of visitors, as the railroad featured the ranch in its advertisements in order to distinguish the line from its competitors. Although the ranch was not developed for tourism, the Del Valles, with their Californio sense of hospitality, would lodge the visitors. By October 1888, housing visitors was getting to be so expensive for the family that Reginaldo del Valle pressed his mother to stop being so hospitable. The tourists could be quite a nuisance, and unscrupulous visitors would steal items from the house as souvenirs, or help themselves to fruit from the orchards.</p><br>
<p>Naturally, the name Camulos became so tied to the novel that many people began to use it instead of the original "Moreno Ranch" when referring to the novel. An 1897 play based on the book was called, "Ramona, or the Bells of Camulos". In Virginia Calhoun&#39;s 1905 stage adaptation, characters in the play called the ranch Camulos as well.</p><br>
<p>Given the general belief that Camulos was the original setting of the novel, D. W. Griffith shot portions of his 1910 silent film adaptation at the rancho, using the chapel, the adobe and patio, and the nearby mountains as backdrops. Paintings and photographs of the rancho by noted artists such as Adam Clark Vroman, Henry Sandham (who had accompanied Jackson on her initial tour), Henry Chapman Ford, and Alexander Harmer also illustrated later versions of the novel.</p><br>
<p>Although tourism brought much difficulty to the Del Valles, they were not above capitalizing upon their newfound fame, branding their wine and oranges as the "Home of Ramona Brand". Their label used the same view of the veranda that had been popularized in postcards. One Tataviam servant girl was said to make quite a bit of money by pretending to be the "real Ramona" and charging tourists for a photograph.</p><br>
<p>Tourists continued to arrive even after the SP relocated its main line in 1903 through the Santa Susana Pass, bypassing Camulos. Two daily trains made stops at Camulos until the service was discontinued in the 1940s, with tourism by automobile having become the preferred method of travel. After the Rübels took ownership in 1924, they continued to welcome visitors in small numbers, converting the second floor of the winery into a small museum with artifacts from the Del Valle family. Today, the rancho hosts an annual "Ramona Days" festival in October.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>Fifteen buildings are open to the public as part of the Rancho Camulos Museum, all of which were built before 1930 and are still in their original locations. They were built mostly in Spanish Colonial or Mission Revival styles (the latter is derived from the former). Later buildings were designed in differing architectural styles, more representative of their period of construction. Landscaping features, such as lawns, flower gardens, ornamental trees, and walkways, separate the residential areas from the working portions of the ranch.</p><br>
<p>The main adobe, also called the Ygnacio del Valle adobe, is a 10,000-square foot (929 m²), twenty-room, U-shaped structure. When initially constructed in 1853, it was an L-shaped four-room house connected with an external corredor (as opposed to an interior hallway), as is typical of the Spanish Colonial style. It is unusual for its time period because around this time, the Monterey style was in vogue, as is evidenced by contemporaneous buildings in Santa Barbara. Los Alamos Ranch House in Santa Barbara County, and Rancho Guajome Adobe and Las Flores Adobe in San Diego County, all National Historic Landmarks, are built in a similar style.</p><br>
<p>The house expanded in several phases. In 1861, before the Del Valle family moved here permanently, they added three additional rooms as well as a free-standing cocina (kitchen). This was to keep fire away from the main building, as well as to keep it cooler. A basement was dug out as the foundation of the new rooms. In the 1870s, another wing was added perpendicular to the 1861 addition. Finally, some time after 1895, one more room was added to the new wing, as well as a breezeway to the kitchen, completing the current shape. Remodeling completed after this time was to the interior only.</p><br>
<p>The basement of the house initially served as the wine storage area. In 1867, the family had a one-and-a-half-story brick winery constructed. After 1900, when wine grapes were no longer grown commercially, this building served as a storage room. Rübel later converted it to a museum for Ramona visitors, complete with Del Valle family artifacts. In the 21st century it is used for storage of farm equipment and automobiles.</p><br>
<p>To the west of the main house is a large California Black Walnut (Juglans californica) tree that was most likely planted by Juventino del Valle in the 1860s. It measures 25 ft in circumference and its branches spread out almost half an acre (2,000 m²). It is believed to be the largest Black Walnut tree in the area.</p><br>
<p>The wooden chapel was constructed around 1867, replacing a makeshift chapel that had been set up in 1861. After the secularization of the missions, this chapel became known as the "lost mission", the only place of worship between Mission San Fernando and Mission San Buenaventura. Directly to the northwest of the chapel is a bell structure. It originally contained three bells on a freestanding frame, which were used to call worshipers to Mass. The largest and a second, slightly smaller bell were cast at Kodiak, Alaska. The smaller one had previously been used at Mission San Fernando and may have been relocated to Camulos by Antonio del Valle when he was administrator at San Fernando. The third, and smallest bell, is missing.</p><br>
<p>The exact dates of construction of the barn, gas station, and bunkhouse are unknown, but the American Craftsman style of architecture indicates it was between 1910 to 1916, when this was popular. The barn is located to the northwest of the living quarters, in the main work area. The gas station and bunkhouse are not depicted on the map.</p><br>
<p>The small adobe, next to the highway, was built by Nachito del Valle. This Spanish Colonial Revival house was constructed around 1920. It was damaged severely in the 1994 earthquake. Since its reconstruction, it has served as the museum&#39;s visitor center.</p><br>
<p>The schoolhouse, constructed in 1930, was the last structure to be built on the property. It was built by Rübel for his and his bookkeeper&#39;s families and designed to match the main adobe.</p><br>
<p>Few buildings are left on the north side of the highway. The most notable are the wooden Southern Pacific saltbox-style section house and workers bunkhouse, both built in 1887. A train depot and post office both stood in this area, but have been torn down. Three extant farmworkers bungalows, built by the Del Valle family in 1916, are located west of the section house.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>United States National Historic Landmark &mdash; added February 16, 2000</p><br>
<p>United States National Register of Historic Places &mdash; reference number 96001137, added November 1, 1996</p><br>
<p>California Historical Landmark &mdash; number 553</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Rancho Simi, also known as Rancho San José de Nuestra Senora de Altagracia y Simi, was a 113,009 acre Spanish land grant in what is now eastern Ventura and western Los Angeles counties given in 1795 to Francisco Javier Pico and his two brothers, Patricio Pico and Miguel Pico by Governor Diego de Borica. The name derives from Shimiji, the name of the Chumash village in the Simi Valley for thousands of years before the Spanish arrival.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Rancho Simi was a Spanish land concession in Alta California given in 1795 to Francisco Javier Pico, a soldier of the Santa Barbara company, and his two brothers, Patricio Pico and Miguel Pico by the Spanish government.</p><br>
<p>The grant was confirmed in 1842 by Mexican Governor Juan Alvarado. José de la Guerra y Noriega, a Captain of the Santa Barbara Presidio, who had begun to acquire large amounts of land in California to raise cattle, purchased Rancho Simi from the Pico family in 1842.</p><br>
<p>With the cession of California to the United States following the Mexican-American War, the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the Land Act of 1851, a claim for Rancho Simi was filed with the Public Land Commission in 1852, and the grant was patented to José de la Guerra y Noriega in 1865.</p><br>
<p>A few years after Jose de la Guerra’s death in 1858, the rancho was sold to the Philadelphia and California Petroleum Company headed by Pennsylvania Railroad president, Thomas A. Scott. When no great amount of oil was discovered, Scott began to sell the rancho. In 1887, a portion of the rancho was bought by a newly formed company, the Simi Land and Water Company. The city of Simi Valley, California incorporated in 1969.</p><br>
<h2>Historic sites of the Rancho</h2><br>
<p>Simi Adobe-Strathearn House. Home of Robert P. Strathearn served as the rancho headquarters. It is now part of the Strathearn Historical Park and Museum.</p><br>
<p>Winter Island is an island connected by a causeway to Salem Neck in Salem, Massachusetts. It is about 45 acre in size, and is bounded by Smith Pool to the northwest, Cat Cove to the west, Salem Channel to the south and east, and Juniper Cove to the north. The island has about a dozen residences at the north end and one road, Winter Island Road. The Plummer Home for Boys sits on 18 acre of land on the northeastern shore.</p><br>
<p>The balance of the island is Winter Island Marine Park. The entire island was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Winter Island Historic District and Archeological District in 1994.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Winter Island Marine Park is located on the former site of the Fort Pickering Coast Guard Base. It&#39;s a marine recreational park open to the public. The park takes up the southern portion of the peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The main attractions of the park are the historic Fort Pickering, the Fort Pickering Lighthouse, Salem Harbor, a boat launching ramp, and the former Coast Guard seaplane hangar and barracks. Fort Pickering is listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, a master plan was developed for Winter Island in Salem, with help from the planning and design firm The Cecil Group of Boston and Bioengineering Group of Salem, and the City of Salem paid $45,000 in federal money.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Winter Island has been seen use since the early settlement of Salem in the 1620s. It was first used as a fish drying and shipbuilding area by early colonial settlers, and was since the early 18th century considered a strategic defensive point for Salem, which was by then on its way to becoming an economically important port. It was fortified during Queen Anne&#39;s War and during the American Revolutionary War, and continued to be fortified through the 19th century. Fort Pickering Light was built in 1871, and the military use of the island was eventually transformed into a Coast Guard station. Even this use was discontinued in the 20th century, and the island was turned over to the city, which established Winter Island Marine Park.</p><br>
<p>Salem Harbor is a harbor in northeastern Massachusetts spanning an area north and south of Salem. Historically the Salem Harbor was the site of one of the major international ports in the colonies. During the American Revolutionary War, merchant ships were enlisted as privateers, an important role to augment the ill-prepared Continental Navy. In 1790, Salem Harbor was a world-famous seaport and sixth-largest in the United States of America. Now the harbor is used for commercial and recreational purposes and the Salem Maritime National Historic Site is very popular with tourists from around the world.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Salem merchants defended the colonies during the American Revolutionary War through privateering. When the 13 colonies declared independence, the Continental Navy had only 31 ships. To support their efforts Letters of Marque were issued to private merchant ships to authorize them to attack enemy merchant ships. George Washington&#39;s Army numbered 11,000 men; there were 11,000 privateers at sea in the Atlantic, Caribbean, and between Ireland and England. One of the goals was to obtain gunpowder, outlawed for import by the British. Over 2 million pounds of gunpowder and saltpeter were brought in by the privateers and merchantmen. They also prevented British soldiers and over 10,000 seamen out of the British Navy, with the Continental Navy the total was 16,000 captured British.</p><br>
<p>Titus, a slave to Mrs. John Cabot of Salem, established a business and successfully recruited blacks as privateers during the war. Captain Jonathan Haraden was considered one of the best privateers, simultaneously fighting three armed British ships. His efforts resulted in the capture of 10,000 cannons.</p><br>
<p>During the late 18th and early 19th centuries made, international trade was conducted in Salem from the Atlantic coast "to the farthest ports of the rich east." Salem was one of the leading international ports by the end of the 18th century, importing ceramics, furniture, decorative arts, artificial flowers, textiles, spices and dye.</p><br>
<h2>Air Station Salem at Salem Harbor</h2><br>
<p>On 15 February 1935 the U.S. Coast Guard established a new seaplane facility at Salem because there was no space to expand the Gloucester Air Station at Ten Pound Island. Coast Guard Air Station Salem was located at Winter Island, an extension of Salem Neck which juts out into Salem Harbor. Search and rescue, hunting for derelicts and medical evacuations were the Station&#39;s primary areas of responsibility. During the first year of operation, Salem crews performed 26 med-evac missions. They flew in all kinds of weather and the radio direction capabilities of the aircraft were of significant value in locating vessels in distress.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, air crews from Salem flew neutrality patrols along the coast and the Air Station roster grew to 37 aircraft. Anti-submarine patrols were flown on a regular basis. In October 1944, Air Station Salem was officially designated as the first Air-Sea Rescue station on the eastern seaboard. The Martin PBM Mariner, a hold-over from the war, became the primary rescue aircraft. In the mid-1950s helicopters came as did Grumman HU-16 Albatross amphibious flying boats (UFs). Salem Harbor was deep enough to host a seadrome with three sea lanes, offering a variety of take-off headings irrespective of wind direction unless there was a strong steady wind from the east. This produced large waves that swept into the mouth of the harbor making water operations difficult. When the seadrome was too rough, returning amphibian aircraft would use Naval Auxiliary Air Facility Beverly. Salem Air Station moved to Cape Cod in 1970.</p><br>
<p>In 2011 The City of Salem made it official the plans for the tip of the 30-acre Winter Island Park http://salem.patch.com/articles/benefits-concerns-discussed-at-wind-turbine-hearing and squared off against residents who are against bringing two power generating windmills to the tip of Winter Island. The Renewable Energy Task Force, along with Energy and Sustainability Manager Paul Marquis, have recommended the construction of a 1.5-megawatt power turbine at the tip of Winter Island, http://www.wickedlocal.com/salem/features/x1260731137/Wind-turbine-project-moves-forward-in-Salem?img=2#axzz1UlBIsVsO which is the furthest point from residences and where the winds are the strongest. The results of the City of Salem wind tests can be viewed.</p><br>
<p>The nearly 30-acre park has been open to the public since the early 1970s. In 2011 a master plan was developed with help from the planning and design firm The Cecil Group of Boston and Bioengineering Group of Salem and the City of Salem paid $45,000 in federal money. In the long term the projected cost to rehabilitate just the barracks is $1.5 million. But in the short term, there are multiple lower-cost items like a proposed $15,000 for a kayak dock or $50,000 to relocate and improve the bathhouse. This is a very important project since Fort Pickering guarded Salem Harbor as far back as the 17th century.</p><br>
<h2>Closing of the Salem Coal Plant and redevelopment of the 63-acre waterfront site</h2><br>
<p>In May 2011 and after years of legal battles, protests and one recent fatal accident has led the owner of the Salem Harbor Power Station to announce it will close down the facility permanently. Salem Harbor Station is a 60-year-old coal- and oil-burning power plant that is owned by Dominion of Virginia and have said with the approval of ISO New England, the 60-year-old coal and oil-fired plant will close for good in June 2014. The City of Salem was awarded a $200,000 grant from the Clean Energy Center prior to the closure of the plant and with the closure scheduled for June 2014, this grant money is being used to plan for the eventual re-use of this property. That study is underway and we are working with engineers and land use planners on re-use options. The City of Salem has been reaching out to state and federal officials to ask for their cooperation and assistance in planning for the future and money to clean up The Salem Harbor Power Plant 62 Acre Site.</p><br>
<p>Footprint Power, a startup New Jersey-based energy company, announced on the 29th of June 2012 that it has signed an agreement to acquire Salem Harbor Station power plant from Dominion Energy of Virginia. Footprint said it plans to “remediate” a 63-acre waterfront site that has towering smokestacks, a coal pile and oil tanks. A city study estimated cleanup costs at more than $50 million. The plan is to develop a natural gas plant on one-third of the property, reportedly a site along Fort Avenue near the city’s ferry landing. The remainder of the waterfront property eventually will be used for commercial and industrial redevelopment, the company said. “The transition will not only stabilize our property tax base, but also provide cleaner, more efficient and reliable energy. Footprint said its plans are consistent with the recommendations of a city study completed earlier this year on the future use of the power plant site. The City of Salem will require Footprint to demolish the existing plant and stacks, we will restore some 30 to 40 acres of our waterfront to its vibrant and prosperous past.” Mayor Kim Driscoll said she has not had “detailed” talks yet with Footprint but is encouraged by discussions so far. As of December 2013, there are many appeals under way from various groups who do not want the plant built. The main opponent fighting in court is the http://www.clf.org/blog/tag/salem-power-plant/, Conservation Law Foundation,http://www.salemnews.com/local/x1221239631/Salem-power-plant-debate-widens/?state=taberU a leading environmental http://www.energybiz.com/article/13/11/power-plant-facing-new-hurdle?quicktabs_4=2 advocacy group intent on blocking the plant from being built.http://www.salemnews.com/local/x1636694533/Ehrlich-Salem-power-plant-not-needed http://www.salemnews.com/local/x517513118/Plant-hit-with-another-appeal State Rep. Lori Ehrlich is the State Representative for the Massachusetts 8th Essex District and is a vocal opponent of a new power plant being constructed in Salem. It was announced in December 2013 that the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court will hear the case on whether not to build or build the new plant in March 2014.http://www.salemnews.com/local/x1221259485/Footprint-lauds-plant-ruling/?state=taberU</p><br>
<h3>The Salem Ferry</h3><br>
<p>The “Nathaniel Bowditch”, is a 92-foot-high speed catamaran that travels from Salem to Boston in 50 minutes from May to October and had its maiden voyage on June 22, 2006. The Salem Ferry is named after Nathaniel Bowditch, who was from Salem and wrote the American Practical Navigator. Since 2006 ridership increased every year, and peaked in 2010 with 89,000, but in 2011 service was cut back because of the dramatic rise in fuel prices.</p><br>
<p>The ferry was purchased by the current mayor of Salem, Kim Driscoll, with the use of grant money that covered 90 percent of the $2.1 million purchase price. Because of the cutback in service during the 2011 season, Mayor Kim Driscoll is now seeking a new operator who can run the ferry seven days a week from May to October.</p><br>
<p>For the 2012 Season Boston Harbor Cruises will be taking over the running of the Salem Ferry with seven-day service and a Monday-to-Friday 7 a.m. commuter ferry to Boston. The Salem Ferry will be running seven days a week for the 2012 season from Memorial Day to Halloween.</p><br>
<p>Still running strong and for the 2017 Season Boston Harbor Cruises will once again be running the Salem Ferry to Boston.</p><br>
<h3>Salem Waterfront, cruise ships, and the Blaney Street pier renovation</h3><br>
<p>The first step in the redevelopment was in 2006, when the State of Massachusetts gave Salem $1,000,000. The bulk of the money – $750,000 – is earmarked for acquisition of the Blaney Street landing, the private, 2-acre site off Derby Street used by the ferry. Another $200,000 was approved for the design of the new Salem wharf, a large pier planned for the landing, which officials said could be used by small cruise ships, commercial vessels and fishing boats.</p><br>
<p>In October 2010, Mayor Kimberley Driscoll announced that the city will formally acquire the Blaney Street parcel from Dominion Energy, paving the way for the Salem Wharf project. The City of Salem secured $1.25 million from the Massachusetts Seaport Advisory Council and $2.5 million in federal grant dollars to move forward with the construction of the project. The City acquired the parcel with the help of a $1.7 million grant received from the Seaport Advisory Council.</p><br>
<p>The City of Salem&#39;s plans call for a total build-out of the current Blaney Street pier, known as the Salem Wharf project. When finished, The Blaney Street pier will be home to small to medium-sized cruise ships, commercial vessels and The Salem Ferry. This project is fully engineered and permitted.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, examples of work to be finished in this early phase that will be complete for the 2011 Season, a contractor is running underground utility cables and erecting an interim terminal building that will be used by the Salem Ferry, replacing the current trailer. The building will have an indoor bathroom – a first at the ferry landing – along with a waiting room and possibly an outdoor area with awnings. Also new for 2011 is a paved lot with about 140 parking spaces replacing the existing dirt parking lot.</p><br>
<p>Also in 2011, construction crews have been building a long seawall at the Blaney Street landing, which runs from the edge of the ferry dock back toward Derby Street and along an inner harbor. This is one of the early and key pieces of the Salem Pier, which the city hopes to have completed by 2014 and is the key to eventually bring cruise ships to Salem.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the 2011 season of the Salem Ferry, In the late fall of 2011, after the ferry season ends, contractors will start building the first section of the T-shaped, 350-foot pier. Work on that phase was scheduled to be completed by the fall of 2012. As of April 2011, The City Of Salem has secured half of the $20 million and still needs to secure about $10 million in state and federal funds to complete this waterfront pier.</p><br>
<p>In November 2013, The City of Salem received $4,000,000 from the Massachusetts Seaport Advisory Council to build an extension to Salem Wharf & other improvements that will eventually accommodate Cruise ships to Salem Harbor. http://www.salemnews.com/local/x1442603542/Salem-gets-4M-for-harbor/?state=taberU</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Salem Harbor is located at {{coord|42|31|25|N|70|51|58|W}} According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Salem has a total area of 18.1 square miles (46.8 km²), of which, 8.1 square miles (21.0 km²) of it is land and 9.9 square miles (25.8 km²) of it (55.09%) is water.</p><br>
<p>Salem Harbor divides the city from much of neighboring Marblehead to the southeast, and Beverly Harbor and divides the city from Beverly along with the Danvers River, which feeds into the harbor. Between the two harbors lies Salem Neck and Winter Island, which are divided from each other by Cat Cove, Smith Pool (located between the two land causeways to Winter Island) and Juniper Cove.</p><br>
<p>Salem is the second deepest of the five ports in Massachusetts. Within its harbor are commercial and recreational vessels. There are over 1,600 permitted recreational boats in Salem waters and an estimated 8,000 moored or slipped recreational boats using the waters of Salem Sound. Inside the harbor, the electric power plant receives shipments of coal and oil from around the world. Mid-size cruise ships navigate and drop anchor in the harbor.</p><br>
<p>The Harbormaster Department operates 24 hours a day. It has its own separate city department under the control of the Mayor of Salem and is also a sub-division of the Police Department.</p><br>
<h2>The Salem Maritime National Historic Site at Salem Harbor</h2><br>
<p>The Salem Maritime National Historic Site is a National Historic Site consisting of 12 historic structures, one replica tall-ship, and about 9 acres (36,000 m) of land along the waterfront of Salem Harbor in Salem, Massachusetts. Salem Maritime is the first National Historic Site established in the United States (March 17, 1938).</p><br>
<p>http://www.nps.gov/sama/historyculture/index.htm Salem Maritime National Historic Site, the first National Historic Site established in the United States (March 17, 1938).</p><br>
<p>It interprets the Triangle Trade during the colonial period, in cotton, rum, sugar and slaves; the actions of privateers during the American Revolution; and global maritime trade with the Far East, after independence. The National Park Service manages both the National Historic Site and a Regional Visitor Center in downtown Salem. The National Park Service (NPS) is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the National Park Service, which runs the Salem Maritime National Historic Site, released figures and statistics for 2012: there were 756,038 visitors to Salem who spent an estimated $40,000,000. The National Park Service is celebrating its 100th anniversary in 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Marinas, yachts and docks</h2><br>
<p>The following organizations are located in or near the Salem Harbor:</p><br>
<p>Marinas</p><br>
<p>* Pickering Wharf Marina with transient dockage</p><br>
<p>* Hawthorne Cove Marina with transient dockage and moorings</p><br>
<p>* Nearby Port Marina in Beverly offers gas and diesel service.</p><br>
<p>Yacht Clubs</p><br>
<p>* The Salem Willows Yacht Club which sells non-diesel fuel to the public in season.</p><br>
<p>* Palmers Cove Yacht Club, located inside the inner harbor.</p><br>
<p>* Dions Yacht Yard</p><br>
<p>* Hawthorne Cove Marina</p><br>
<p>* Winter Island Yacht Yard</p><br>
<p>Public docks</p><br>
<p>* Winter Island Recreational Park at the mouth of the harbor</p><br>
<p>* Kernwood Marina, located up the Danvers river</p><br>
<p>* Salem Willows Park pier</p><br>
<p>* At the Congress Street bridge, next to Pickering wharf</p><br>
<h2>Mooring fields</h2><br>
<p>Within the harbor, there are six mooring fields:</p><br>
<p>Amrita Island is a small inhabited island in Squeteague Harbor in the village of Cataumet in the town of Bourne, in Barnstable County, Massachusetts. Several residential homes are located on the island. Baxendale Road is the only road and it connects the island to the mainland from Megansett Road.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Thomas Baxendale, of Brockton, Massachusetts, and his wife Esther Minerva purchased Amrita Island in 1893. The couple then began to build a residence on the island, including a mansion named "Island Haven," along with a stone bridge; four other homes named Stonehenge, Sorrento, Castle le Mere, and Guardian; three bathing pavilions; a gazebo; a cottage; and a mausoleum that would eventually house the Baxendales and several of their beloved animals.</p><br>
<p>The island is well known for its ties to animal welfare advocacy. Baxendale was an advocate for animal welfare, and during his time on Amrita Island, he hosted lectures on animal advocacy and donated funds to the local Animal Rescue League. Upon Esther Baxendales death in 1927, Harvard University was given Amrita Island in the Baxendales will. In turn, Harvard University donated the island&#39;s 21 acres to the Animal Rescue League of Boston. On a mainland parcel of land adjacent to the Island, until 2007, the Animal Rescue League operated "a summer camp for inner city children between the ages of seven and fourteen...where they learned animal care, dog obedience, pet shows, nature study, and woodworking."</p><br>
<p>The Gnadensee is part of Lower Lake Constance , the western part of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Gnadensee lies between Allensbach in the north and the island of Reichenau in the south. In the west it extends to the Mettnau peninsula (Radolfzell) and its eastern end borders on the Wollmatinger Ried Nature Reserve and the Reichenaudamm with its prominent avenue of poplars. The extremely small part in the northwest is called the Markelfinger Winkel. Together with the latter it has an area of 13 square kilometres. It reaches a maximum depth of 19 metres.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name of the Gnadensee probably dates to the period when the local judiciary was based on the island of Reichenau. If an accused person was found guilty and sentenced to death, the execution could not take place on the island. It had to be carried out on the mainland as the whole island was holy ground. As a result the convict was taken by boat to the mainland in the direction of present-day Allensbach, in order that the sentence could be carried out. If the local ruler, the abbot, wanted to reprieve the criminal, he had a bell rung before the boat reached the far shore. This was a signal to the executioner on the mainland that the convict had received a pardon or Gnade ("mercy" or "grace" in German).</p><br>
<p>Another explanation is that the name Gnadensee is derived from Mary, Mother of God, the "Lady of our Grace", and is an ellipsis of the word Gnadensee ("Lady of Grace Lake"), as the monastery in Mittelzell was dedicated to Saint Mary.</p><br>
<p>Lake Zell  is a small freshwater lake in the Austrian Alps. It takes its name from the city of Zell am See, which is located on a small delta protruding into the lake. The lake is 4 km long and 1.5 km wide. It is up to 69 metres deep and at an elevation of 750 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The lake is fed by numerous small mountain streams in summer, but only one stream flows out of it into the Salzach River. In winter the lake completely freezes and is used for winter sports. In summer the lake is used for pleasure boating (boats powered by combustion engines are not allowed except for the ferries that cross the width of the lake from Zell to Thumersbach, so electrically powered boats can be rented instead). The water is very clear and suitable for swimming or diving, but can be chilly.</p><br>
<p>The southern end of the lake, near Schüttdorf, is shallower and mostly filled with water weed, making it unsuitable for boating or swimming.</p><br>
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<p>Salt Pan Creek, an urban watercourse of the Georges River catchment, is located in the Canterbury-Bankstown region of Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Course and features</h2><br>
<p>Salt Pan Creek rises west southwest of the suburb of Mount Lewis, within the Canterbury-Bankstown local government area, and flows generally south by east through Georges River local government area, before reaching its confluence with the Georges River, at Riverwood. The catchment area of the creek is approximately 26 km&sup2, and is subject to flooding due to vegetation modification and urban development.</p><br>
<p>Vegetation in the catchment area consists of three endangered ecological species, including coastal saltmarsh, Cooks River Castlereagh Ironbark Forest, and Shale / Sandstone Transition Forest. Vegetation varies substantially throughout the catchment area and includes freshwater environments, estuarine environments, mangroves and saltmarshes, riparian and terrestrial environments, which provide important habitat for native fauna.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From as early as 1809, the land surrounding Salt Pan Creek was the site of uprising by Australian Aborigines against colonial settlement. Tedbury, the son of Pemulwuy, an Aboriginal elder, was involved in a skirmish that saw Frederick Meredith, a European settler, injured with a spear and forced to abandon his farm. It is understood that Meredith and another settler, sought to clear and cultivate land surrounding the creek that may have been an important food source for Aborigines. Between 1926 and 1935, lands surrounding the creek became a focal point for indigenous rights, as they set up squatter camps that consisted of refugee families whose traditional lands had been resumed and also those seeking to escape the Aboriginal Protection Board.</p><br>
<p>Salt Pan Creek was named by early colonial settlers, who took salt from the swampland by evaporating the salt water.</p><br>
<p>Peak 5390, also known as Veniaminof Peak and Lacey Peak, is the highest peak on Baranof Island and the Alexander Archipelago which are located in southeast Alaska. Peak 5390 is an informal name, named after the peak&#39;s height in feet, but is unnamed by USGS maps. Peak 5390 ranks as the highest island-based peak in the USA outside of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska and volcanos on Hawai&lsquo;i and Maui islands.</p><br>
<p>Peak 5390 takes most backpackers one or two nights to approach due to its central location on Baranof Island. However, the peak is a nunatak and the final ascent is relatively short; only the tip of the mountain emerges from the surrounding icefield. The route to Peak 5390 navigates ridges, a cul-de-sac glacier, a glacial headwall, a seasonal bergschrund, and a large icefield. Only experienced climbers should undertake a trip, and local knowledge is recommended.</p><br>
<p>On a clear day, the mainland, the Coast Mountains, and distinguished peaks such as Devils Thumb and other spires in the Stikine Icecap are visible from the summit. Conversely, Peak 5390 is clearly visible from the Baranof Cross-Island Trail with only the Baranof River valley separating the two.</p><br>
<p>Reschen Pass  is a mountain pass across the Main chain of the Alps, connecting the Upper Inn Valley in the northwest with the Vinschgau region in the southeast. Since 1919, the border between South Tyrol, Italy and Tyrol, Austria has approximately followed the watershed, the pass summit at a height of 1,504 m being completely on Italian territory.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>Reschen is one of the principal passes of the Alps, located between Brenner Pass in the east and Viamala in the west. It is part of the drainage divide between the Danube in the north and the Adige in the south.</p><br>
<p>The village of Reschen (Resia) is directly located on the watershed, on the shore of the Reschensee reservoir, built in 1950 and famous for the bell tower which emerges from the water in front of Graun municipality. The border with Nauders, Austria runs about 2 km north of the pass summit towards the tripoint with Valsot, Switzerland in the west.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Winter highs can reach around 8-10 &deg;C, but can also be as cold as -10 &deg;C. In summertime, maxima can be as high as 25-28 &deg;C, or as low as single figures. However, minimum temperatures generally stay above 0 &deg;C.</p><br>
<p>The above table is for the period 1990-2016.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Already before the Roman era, an unnamed bridle path linked the valley of the Inn River with the valley of the Adige (de. Etsch; lad. Adesc) river. The current Reschen Pass was part of the Via Claudia Augusta, opened about 50 AD. Later superseded by the Via Raetia across Brenner Pass, built at the behest of Emperor Septimius Severus in the 2nd century, it remained one of the few Roman roads leading into the Raetia province and to Augusta Vindelicorum. During the Middle Ages, the pass was an alternative to the passes of Graubünden in the west, though from the 14th century onwards the parallel Brenner Pass road from Bozen through the Eisack Valley in the east gained more and more importance.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the wide and smooth southern side, the northern side of Reschen Pass has a steep and narrow bottleneck at Finstermünz (1188 m). Archduke Sigismund of Austria had a fortress built here in 1472 and until 1854 a custom house between the Austrian County of Tyrol and Switzerland was founded between two fortified bridges over the Inn river.</p><br>
<p>The Austrian engineer Carl Ritter von Ghega (who already had built the Semmering railway line from Vienna through Lower Austria and Styria to Graz) and Joseph Duile laid out plans for a new road from the fortress of Nauders (1394 m) to Cajetansbrücke near Pfunds (972 m), which was built between 1850-54. This road leads to Reschen Pass along the Eastern, Austrian banking of the Inn, connecting the Austrians lands on Austrian soil. An additional mountain road leads from the Inn valley from the Swiss hamlet Martina resp. the Austrian Martinsbrück up to Norbertshöhe and Nauders, providing a shorter way from Switzerland to Italy compared to the longer road via Cajetansbrücke. Several structures for a projected railway connection were also built, however, these plans were finally abandoned after World War II.</p><br>
<p>Gouffre Jean-Bernard or Réseau Jean Bernard, sometimes known simply as Jean Bernard, is one of the deepest known caves in the world. It is found in the Alps, in Samoëns, France. The first entrance to the cave was found by the French caving group Groupe Vulcain in 1963. More entrances have been found over the years since, and currently at least thirteen are known. The highest entrance, known as C37, is at 2,274 m above sea level. The cave is named after Jean Dupont and Bernard Raffy, two Groupe Vulcain members who died in 1963 in an unrelated expedition.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<p>Exploration of the cave began shortly after discovery in 1963. By 1969, the cave had been explored to a depth of 623 m below the level of the highest entry point. At that point, further exploration was blocked by a water-filled tunnel.</p><br>
<p>Subsequently, another entrance was discovered that had passages that bypassed the flooded tunnel. The cave was explored to 938 m before again becoming blocked, this time by fallen rocks. In 1976, these rocks were removed, allowing explorers to descend to 1,298 m; at the time, that made it the second-deepest known cave, although it has since been surpassed.</p><br>
<p>More recent explorations have found it to be approximately 1,602 m deep, making it the sixth-deepest cave in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Residencia Aboy-Lompré, also known as Casa Aboy, is a historic house built in San Juan, Puerto Rico around 1910 and 1912 for the Aboy-Ferrer Family. The house is notable for its use of modern architecture at the time.</p><br>
<h2>Design and architecture</h2><br>
<p>The design for Casa Aboy was the product of various architects, among them Antonin Nechodoma, a disciple of Frank Lloyd Wright. Nechodoma, who moved to Puerto Rico around 1905, used a tropical style of architecture which became popular in the island. Puerto Rican architect Miguel Ferrer and engineer Francisco Pons also worked on the property&#39;s design with the purpose of taking advantage of the north breezes and natural light of the location. Pons and Ferrer hired Frank B. Hatch, who had worked with Nechodoma, also put some of his ideas in the design of the house. Finally, Ramón Aboy Lompré made his own suggestions for the house, which he would inhabit.</p><br>
<p>The house entrance features an ample house-wide porch with two posts, typical of Nechodomas style. The attic windows were altered to adorn the front of the house, and the tinted glass were bought on the Dominican Republic. Aside of the porch, it also features ornamental tiles, a double interior staircase, and the style of the roof are all Nechodomas trademarks. However, unlike his style, the house features big rooms, and a wide hallway.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After its construction, the Aboy Residence was a common setting for social gatherings. The building on the original lot, which extended from the avenue in front to what is now Calle Martí, no longer exists. Upon the death of the original owner, the lot was divided between his two sons who built twin residences there. However, in 1986, after a legal battle over the inheritance, the house was closed. Shortly after, Ramón Aboy died.</p><br>
<p>Today only the house built by Don Ramón Aboy remains. It has been declared part of Puerto Rico&#39;s "cultural heritage," and it houses the Federación de Foto Periodistas de Puerto Rico (Federation of Photojournalists of Puerto Rico). The Federation helped fund Ramón Aboy Miranda, a direct descendant of the original owner.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, the Aboy Residence was listed at the National Register of Historic Sites. The local government began the process of restoring it with the help of the Puerto Rican Institute of Culture, and Puerto Rico Legislative Assembly, among others. The house was reopened on May 5, 1994 for the purpose of free cultural activities. It also housed the Cultural Center Ramón Aboy Miranda, which is part of the Puerto Rican Institute of Culture.</p><br>
<p>The street that runs past the residence also carries the name of the Aboy family because it was constructed on the lands that belonged to them.</p><br>
<p>Distinguished members of this family have included the aforementioned Ramón Aboy Miranda (accomplished Puerto Rican photojournalist); José Ferrer (actor and first Puerto Rican to win an Academy Award), and Carmen Aboy de Valldejuli (Puerto Rican cooking pioneer and author, with her husband Luis Valldejuli Duprey, of various Puerto Rican cookbooks).</p><br>
<p>Slade Hall is a small Elizabethan manor house on Slade Lane in Longsight, Manchester, England. An inscription above the porch dates the building to 1585.</p><br>
<p>The mansion is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building, first listed on 25 February 1952.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Slade, known anciently as Milkwall Slade, was an estate made up of 24 acre in Rusholme and 20 acre in Gorton, both in Manchester, England. From about the mid-13th century uutil the reign of Elizabeth I, it was held by a family who adopted Slade as their surname. They sold the estate to the Siddall family, who in 1583 began construction of Slade Hall. Work was completed by 1585, as evidenced by an inscription on a beam over the porch, which also has the initials of the builder, E. S., for Edward Siddall. The Siddals and their descendants occupied the house for the next 300 years.</p><br>
<p>Slade Hall was offered for sale at auction in 2002, and was bought by property developer Mel Evans for £527,000. As of 2017 the hall is divided into shared accommodation for 14 residents, and is the registered office of the Partington Housing Association.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Slade Hall is an Elizabethan timber-framed house on a stone base, built to a hall and cross-wing plan. There are some brick extensions to the rear, a slate roof, and a 19th-century wing added to the right of the original. It is of two storeys, the upper one jettied.</p><br>
<p>The length of the principal front is now about 70 ft, but the original building consists only of the middle portion under the two gables and the wing to the south. These stand on three different planes, the main gable being 18 ft in front of the southern end of the house, and the porch and staircase bay occupying the angle between them. The timber front is composed principally of straight diagonal pieces between the constructional timbers, but has quatrefoil panels in the smaller gable.</p><br>
<p>The dining-room / master-bedroom, on the right of the entrance, retains its old oak ceiling crossed by massive beams, and the upper room over the drawing-room in the south wing has an elaborate plaster frieze on its north and south walls. In this room the original timber construction of the house can be seen all round. though faced with brick on two sides. The frieze on the south wall has three shields, the centre one bearing the royal arms of Queen Elizabeth encircled by a garter and supported by a lion and a dragon. Above are the queens initials E. R. On the right is a shield of eleven quarters of Stanley with supporters, encircled by a garter and with the initials E. D., and on the left is another quartered shield with coronet and supporters, having above it the initials E. S. Between are two female figures, said to represent Queens Mary and Elizabeth. The frieze on the opposite wall has a representation of a stag hunt with a tree in the centre bearing the Stanley crest of the eagle and child. There was formerly a moulded plaster ceiling in this room, but it has been removed. Nowadays plaster friezes are still visible depicting the hunting scenes as well as the Elizabethan coat of arms and Siddall familys crest.</p><br>
<p>The Indiana State Soldiers and Sailors Monument is a neoclassical monument built on Monument Circle, a circular, brick-paved street that intersects Meridian and Market streets in the center of downtown Indianapolis, Indiana. In the years since its public dedication on May 15, 1902, the monument has become an iconic symbol of Indianapolis, the state capital of Indiana. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on February 13, 1973 and was included in an expansion of the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza National Historic Landmark District in December 2016. It is located in the Washington Street-Monument Circle Historic District. It is also the largest outdoor memorial and the largest of its kind in Indiana.</p><br>
<p>It was designed by German architect Bruno Schmitz and built over a thirteen-year period, between 1888 and 1901. The monuments original purpose was to honor Hoosiers who were veterans of the American Civil War; however, it is also a tribute to Indianas soldiers who served during the American Revolutionary War, territorial conflicts that partially led to the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, and the Spanish–American War. The monument is the first in the United States to be dedicated to the common soldier.</p><br>
<p>The obelisk-shaped monument is built of oolitic limestone from Owen County, Indiana. It rests on a raised foundation surrounded by pools and fountains. Broad stone steps on its north and south sides lead to two terraces at its base. Stone tablets above the bronze entrance doors on the obelisks north and south sides bear inscriptions commemorating Indianas soldiers. An inscription above the tablets reads: "To Indianas Silent Victors." An observation deck is accessible by stairs or elevator from the interior. In addition to its commemorative statuary and fountains, made primarily of oolitic limestone and bronze, the basement of the monument contains the Colonel Eli Lilly Civil War Museum, a museum of Indiana history during the American Civil War. At the time of the monuments dedication in 1902, its cost was $598,318. It has been estimated that construction of a similar structure in 2014 would exceed $500 million.</p><br>
<p>The memorial includes several notable outdoor sculptures, including Rudolph Schwarzs two massive limestone groupings of War and Peace, two smaller scenes named The Dying Soldier and The Return Home, and four military figures at its base. Three astragals, one by Nikolaus (Nicolaus) Geiger and two others by George T. Brewster, surround the stone obelisk. Additional sculptures include John H. Mahoneys bronze statues of George Rogers Clark, William Henry Harrison, and James Whitcomb, and Franklin Simmonss bronze statue of Oliver P. Morton. Brewsters 30 ft bronze statue of Victory crowns the obelisk. The Indianapolis monument is approximately 15 ft shorter than New York City&#39;s 305 ft Statue of Liberty.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Originally the plot of land at the center of Indianapolis was used as a public gathering place, the site of the Indiana governor&#39;s residence, and a city park. Construction on the monument began in 1888 and was dedicated in 1902.</p><br>
<h3>Governor's Circle and Circle Park</h3><br>
<p>The original plan of Indianapolis, founded in 1821, and platted by Alexander Ralston, included a circular, 80 ft wide street that surrounded a circular, 3 acre plot of land as the focal point at the center of town. The site was originally called the Governors Circle because of its designation as the future site of the Indiana governors residence. The Circle was a hub of community life from the towns beginning in 1821. It was used as a gathering place for religious services before the towns churches were built. A weekly market was held on the site from 1822 to 1824.</p><br>
<p>A governors residence was built on the Circle in 1827. Due to the mansions public location and poor construction, no governor ever lived there; however, it was used as offices for Indiana&#39;s Supreme Court justices, the Indiana State Library, and the State Bank of Indiana. It was also a site for civic events and celebrations such as inaugural balls for new governors, fundraising events for charity, military receptions, Fourth of July celebrations, and community meetings. By 1851 the building had deteriorated. It was torn down in 1857, and the site became a vacant lot.</p><br>
<p>As Indianapolis grew and developed during and after the Civil War, the area became a popular meeting place for mass gatherings, public rallies, and celebrations of wartime victories. In 1867 the site was cleaned up, fenced, and designated as the citys Circle Park. The park remained vacant until 1884, when a bronze statue of Oliver P. Morton, Indianas Civil War-era governor, was erected at its center. Franklin Simmons, an American sculptor living in Rome, Italy, and a noted sculptor of other Civil War memorial statues, created the statue of Morton, which was surrounded by an iron fence. Dedication ceremonies took place on June 15, 1884, with Indiana governor Conrad Baker presiding. Senator Benjamin Harrison and Colonel William Dudley delivered speeches during the event.</p><br>
<h3>Monument proposals</h3><br>
<p>Many times after the Civil War suggestions were made to build a monument honoring Indianas Civil War veterans. The first proposal was made on April 1, 1862, when an anonymous editorial in the Indianapolis Daily Journal suggested a monument be erected in Circle Park; however, no action was taken. Talk of a monument continued in the years following the war. In 1867 governor Morton suggested a monument be erected on the highest point in Crown Hill Cemetery, but nothing came of it. In 1872 William H. English addressed a group of Civil War veterans and expressed his support for a monument at Crown Hill, but a bill introduced in the state legislature failed to pass. Other potential sites for the monument included University Park, Military Park, and the corner of Washington and Illinois streets in the citys downtown business district, along the National Road.</p><br>
<p>No progress on was made on the monument until August 1875, when George J. Langsdale, a newspaper editor of the Greencastle Banner, presented a plan for a memorial during the first reunion of Civil War veterans, which was held in Indianapolis. Langsdale&#39;s idea was favorably received and a monument association was formed. By 1887 the Indiana Department of the Grand Army of the Republic had raised $23,380, before relinquishing responsibility for the monument to the State of Indiana.</p><br>
<p>Further action was taken on March 3, 1887, when the Indiana General Assembly passed a bill to form a monument commission, whose original members included Samuel B. Voyles, D. C. McCollum, Daniel M. Ransdell, George J. Johnson, James, G. Gookins, and Langsdale, who was elected the committees president at its first meeting on June 28, 1887. Randsell, who resigned two years later, was replaced by Thomas W. Bennett, and William H. English replaced Bennett. Some state legislators disagreed over use of the Circle as the monuments site; however, the legislative act that authorized it specifically identified the intended site as Circle Park.</p><br>
<h3>Design and construction</h3><br>
<p>To select a design for the new monument, the commission established an international contest and solicited ten architects to submit sketches. Notices were also placed in leading newspapers in the United States, Canada, England, France, Germany, and Italy, to encourage others to submit their ideas. The contest deadline was set for January 12, 1888, and seventy designs were submitted. The selection committee, who initially did not know the identity of the designers, chose two entries for further consideration. Bruno Schmitz, an architect from Berlin, Prussia, who submitted a design called Symbol of Indiana was the commissioners unanimous choice as the winner. Schmitz, an architect knowledgeable in the field of monument design, was also a friend and fellow artist of the commissions secretary, James F. Gookins, when the two lived in Munich, Germany. Percy Stone, of London, England, received $500 for his second-prize entry.</p><br>
<p>Several individuals and companies were involved in the monuments construction. Schmitz received his commission as the projects supervising architect in February 1888. His contract for the project specified his commission as five percent of the monuments total cost. Although ambiguous language in the authorizing bill created some confusion over the type of memorial to be erected, either a single monument or a combination of monument and memorial hall, the controversy was cleared up in 1893, six years after the bills initial passage, when its confusing statement was repealed. In the meantime, construction continued using Schmitz&#39;s design.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone was laid on August 22, 1889. Inside, a copper box contained, among other items, an official list of all Indiana soldiers who had served in the Civil War, newspapers, copies of Indianas two constitutions, a thirty-eight-star American flag, a photograph of Schmitz, the ceremonys program, and other related paraphernalia from the Grand Army of the Republic, the Womens Relief Corps, the Sons of the Republic, and other groups. Ceremonies held on the northeast corner of the monument included a speech by President Benjamin Harrison, an artillery salute, and a parade. Members of Harrisons cabinet, Indiana&#39;s governor Alvin P. Hovey, and other state officials were present. The Department Commander of the Grand Army of the Republic was master of ceremonies. It was the first monument in the United States to be dedicated to the common soldier.</p><br>
<p>Public donations and the Indiana General Assembly&#39;s initial appropriations were not sufficient to fund the complete project. More funds were required. The state legislature appropriated an additional $160,000, and in 1891, raised over $123,000 with an additional property tax. Construction on the monument, which began in 1888, took thirteen years to complete. The obelisk was completed in 1892, the main elements by 1894, and its final installations in 1901.</p><br>
<h3>Dedication</h3><br>
<p>The monument was formally dedicated on May 15, 1902. Thousands came to the public event, which began at 8 a.m. with a parade of flags and veterans of the Mexican-American, Civil, and Spanish–American Wars, and ended with an evening fireworks display. The formal dedication ceremony was held at 10 a.m. with General Lew Wallace as the master of ceremonies. General David R. Lucas led the gathering in prayer, and Governor Winfield T. Durbin, Wallace, and John W. Foster, the former United States Secretary of State under President Benjamin Harrison, gave speeches. A male chorus sang and poet James Whitcomb Riley read his poem "The Soldier", which was written especially for the occasion. Musicians played John Philip Sousas "The Messiah of the Nations", a march he had composed for the occasion. Following a second parade in the afternoon and an evening vesper service, the bells of Christ Church sounded and its choir sang "My Country, Tis of Thee".</p><br>
<h3>Later history</h3><br>
<p>The monument has been modified and updated several times since its dedication in 1902.</p><br>
<p>In 1918 a museum opened in the basement of the monument with equipment and artifacts from the Civil War. Floodlights were added to the monument&#39;s surrounding candelabra in 1928.</p><br>
<p>Since 1945 the monument has been decorated for Christmas. In 1962 it was first decorated as the "world&#39;s largest Christmas tree", with garlands and cables of lights stretching to the top.</p><br>
<p>The monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 13, 1973.</p><br>
<p>A series of repairs to the monument began in September 2009. Angled windows, which had allowed some rain to seep in, were replaced with vertical windows, and steel supports for the Victory statue were replaced. The Monument&#39;s observation deck reopened on November 28 of that year.</p><br>
<p>In April 2011 Victory was removed for restoration and returned to its original position atop the monument.</p><br>
<h2>Exterior design</h2><br>
<p>The monument is built at the center of Monument Circle, a circular, brick-paved street that intersects Meridian and Market streets at the center of downtown Indianapolis. The neoclassical-style obelisk is built of oolitic limestone from the Romana Stone Company quarries in Owen County, Indiana. It rests on a raised foundation measuring 30 ft in depth, surrounded by pools and fountains. Broad stone steps on the north and south sides, each 70 ft in length, lead to two terraces at the base of the monument.</p><br>
<p>Limestone tablets above the bronze entrance doors on the north and south sides of the obelisk bear inscriptions commemorating Indiana&#39;s soldiers who served in the American Revolutionary War and the capture of Vincennes from the British in 1779, the War of 1812 and related Indian wars (1811–12), the Mexican–American War (1846–48), and the American Civil War (1861–65). An inscription above the tablets reads: "To Indiana’s Silent Victors."</p><br>
<h3>Sculptures</h3><br>
<p>Bruno Schmitz hired Rudolph Schwarz, an Austrian-born sculptor, to create War and Peace, two massive limestone groupings for the monument. Schwarz adapted Schmitzs original design and added two smaller scenes, The Dying Soldier and The Return Home, below the main groupings. Schwarz also carved four heroic military figures representing the artillery, cavalry, infantry, and navy for the monuments base and executed its bronze entrance doors.</p><br>
<p>Three bronze astragals, one by Nikolaus Geiger and two by George Brewster, surround the stone obelisk. The first astragal is placed 70 ft above the obelisk&#39;s base. The second astragal is 12 ft above the first. The third astragal is 80 ft above the base, below the capital. Geiger, of Berlin, Germany, cast and shipped the first astragal, a battlefield scene of the army, from Germany. He never saw the monument at Indianapolis and died before its completion. Brewster, an American sculptor from Cleveland, Ohio, created the second astragal with a naval theme that includes a portrait relief of Admiral David Farragut. Brewster also designed the third astragal with the dates 1861 and 1865, the Civil War’s beginning and ending dates.</p><br>
<p>Brewster&#39;s Victory crowns the memorial. The statue, which became known as Indiana or Miss Indiana, is 30 ft tall and weighs ten tons. It faces south and cost $12,500. The statue also includes a symbolic sword representing victory, a torch that signifies "the light of civilization", and an eagle, a symbol of freedom.</p><br>
<p>Additional outdoor sculptures include Indianapolis sculptor John Mahoneys bronze statues of George Rogers Clark, William Henry Harrison, and James Whitcomb, and Franklin Simmonss bronze statue of Oliver P. Morton. The statue of Morton, Indianas governor from 1861 to 1867, was erected at the center of the Circle in 1884. When construction began on the new monument, the statue of Morton was removed from its original site. It was reinstalled on the southeast side of the monument, around 1899, to represent Indianas role in American Civil War. In 1895 Mahoney received a commission to create three additional sculptures to represent Indianas role in earlier conflicts. His statue of Clark, on the northwest side of the monument, represents the American Revolution. The statue of Harrison, hero of the battle of Tippecanoe, is installed on the monuments northeast side and represents the War of 1812. The statue of James Whitcomb, Indiana’s governor from 1843 to 1848, is installed on monument&#39;s southwest side to represent the Mexican–American War.</p><br>
<p>In 1894 the original cascading fountains were replaced with larger versions. Four large candelabra, each 40 ft in height, were installed on pedestals at the north and south steps, while smaller candelabra were placed around the monument to illuminate the drinking fountains installed into bronze buffalo heads.</p><br>
<h2>Interior elements</h2><br>
<p>An elevator and stairway provide access to the monument&#39;s observation deck from the base of its interior.</p><br>
<p>The monument also houses the Colonel Eli Lilly Civil War Museum.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>In the years since its public dedication on May 15, 1902, the monument has become an iconic symbol of Indianapolis. It is the first monument in the United States to be dedicated to the common soldier, and the largest outdoor memorial and the largest of its kind in Indiana. The monument was included in the National Register of Historic Places on February 13, 1973.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the American Planning Association recognized Monument Circle as one of nation&#39;s "great public spaces" in its annual "Great Places in America" ranking.</p><br>
<p>The minor league Indy Eleven soccer team features Victory prominently in their logo.</p><br>
<h2>Monument Circle</h2><br>
<p>The Circle is surrounded by retail shops, including the South Bend Chocolate Factory; studios for several local radio stations; the Hilbert Circle Theatre, home of the Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra; financial institutions; the Columbia Club, one of the oldest social clubs of Indiana; Christ Church Cathedral, a historic Episcopal church; and the IPL corporate headquarters.</p><br>
<p>Monument Circle is the premier public gathering place in Indianapolis to commemorate notable events, including concerts, political demonstrations, and photo opportunities.</p><br>
<p>The flag of Indianapolis includes a graphic representation of Monument Circle and the two streets (Meridian and Market) that intersect it.</p><br>
<h2>Christmas</h2><br>
<p>During the Christmas season the monument is decorated as an enormous Christmas tree. This annual city tradition, which became known as the "Circle of Lights", began in 1962. The tree lighting ceremony is held the day after Thanksgiving. The decoration of the monument uses 4,784 lights and 52 strands of garland put in place by volunteers from the local IBEW. More than 100,000 people attend the ceremony and the event is televised to an estimated 50,000 households.</p><br>
<p>Marie-Galante is an island of the Caribbean Sea located south of Guadeloupe and north of Dominica. It is a dependency of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas department and an overseas region of France.</p><br>
<p>Marie-Galante has a land area of 170.5 km² (61 sq. miles). It had 11,528 inhabitants at the start of 2013, with a population density of 67.6 people per km².</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Marie-Galante is divided into three communes (with populations at 1 January 2013):</p><br>
<p>Grand-Bourg (5,564 residents),</p><br>
<p>Capesterre-de-Marie-Galante (3,389) and</p><br>
<p>Saint-Louis (2,575).</p><br>
<p>These three communes formed an intercommunal entity in 1994: the Community of Communes of Marie-Galante (communauté de communes de Marie-Galante). This is the oldest intercommunal structure of the overseas regions of France.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Huecoids are the oldest known civilizations to have occupied Marie-Galante, followed by Arawaks, and then by the Island Caribs circa 850. The island was called Aichi by the Caribs and Touloukaera by the Arawaks.</p><br>
<p>Marie-Galante was the second island encountered by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage, after Dominica. On 3 November 1493, he anchored at the islet now called Anse Ballet in Grand-Bourg, and named the island in honor of the flagship Marigalante (‘gallant Mary’) of the second voyage.</p><br>
<p>On November 8, 1648, Governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré organized the first French colonization of the Americas: about fifty men lived near the site called Vieux Fort "Old Fort". Jacques de Boisseret bought the island back from the French Company of the Islands of America on September 4, 1649. In 1653, the Carib Indians slaughtered the few remaining colonists who had not surrendered to the harsh living conditions.</p><br>
<p>Sugarcane, which probably originated in India, had been imported to the French West Indies by Christopher Columbus. As sugar became a commodity, it was cultivated in Guadeloupe from 1654 by deported Brazilian colonists who created the first sugar plantations equipped with small ox-powered mills to crush the cane.</p><br>
<p>In 1660, at Basse-Terre Chateau, a peace treaty was signed in which the Caribs authorized the French and British to settle on the islands of Dominica and Saint Vincent. With the island now at peace, the availability of mill technology was developing into a plantation-based economy by using imported slaves from Africa.</p><br>
<p>In 1664, Madame de Boisseret gave up her rights to Marie-Galante to the Company of the West Indies, and the island then had its first four ox-powered mills. In 1665, her son Monsieur de Boisseret de Temericourt became the island&#39;s governor. The map of the island he established carries his coat of arms. During the second half of the 17th century, the first slaves were brought from Africa to Marie-Galante to cultivate plantations. In 1671, 57% of the inhabitants were black. Jewish Dutch exiles from Brazil also settled, bringing new methods for the cultivation of cane sugar.</p><br>
<p>In 1676, a Dutch fleet abducted the population and plundered its facilities. After the repopulation of the island, its new inhabitants were attacked for the third time by the Dutch and by the British in 1690 and 1691. These raids, which resulted in the destruction of the mills, the refineries and the depopulation of the island, caused the Governor-General of Martinique to forbid the re-population of the island until 1696. The British retook the island from 1759 to 1763.</p><br>
<p>Windmills were first seen in 1780. By 1830, 105 mills were put in place, half of which were still ox-drawn. Today, 72 mill towers are still standing. From November 1792 to 1794, Marie-Galante, which was Republican, separated itself from the royalist government of Guadeloupe. Slavery was first abolished in 1794.</p><br>
<p>The British captured Guadeloupe, and with it Marie-Galante, la Désirade, and all Guadaloupe&#39;s dependencies, in April 1794. The Treaty of Amiens in 1802 restored them to France. With the restoration, slavery too was reinstated in 1802.</p><br>
<p>In March 1808 the Royal Navy took possession of Marie-Galante to stop French privateers using its port. In August a small French force attempted to recapture the island but the British garrison, consisting of Royal Marines, augmented by Sir Alexander Cochrane&#39;s first Colonial Marines, newly recruited from escaped slaves of the island, and by some troops from the 1st West India Regiment, defeated and captured the French. The British returned the island to France in 1815.</p><br>
<p>Slavery finally came to an end in 1848, thanks to the combined efforts of abolitionists, such as Victor Schœlcher, and repeated slave revolts.</p><br>
<p>The legislative elections of June 24 and June 25, 1849, the first time former slaves were permitted to vote, were inflicted by the bloody violence of protesters which have risen up out of the black majority in response to ballot-rigging orchestrated by wealthy white plantation owners. Many black people were killed during these uprisings which led to the dumping of rum and sugar from the Pirogue plantation into a nearby pond. Today this pond is known as la mare au punch (‘the Punch Pond’) in memory of these tragic events.</p><br>
<p>Guadeloupe (Grande-Terre and Basse-Terre), along with its dependencies (Marie-Galante, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy, Îles des Saintes and la Désirade), were an overseas department since 1946 and a single-department overseas region since 1982. Within Marie-Galante the three communes are Capesterre-de-Marie-Galante, Grand-Bourg and Saint-Louis. Together, these were designated as an intercommunal entity on January 8, 1994, the first to be created in an overseas department. In 2007, Saint-Martin and Saint-Barthélemy each became an overseas collectivity, making them politically separate from Guadeloupe.</p><br>
<p>Steven Callahan, who was lost at sea in a small (5-foot, 6-inch inside diameter) Avon life raft for 76 days, was found alive on April 21, 1982 off the coast of Marie-Galante by local fishermen Paulinus Williams, Jules Paquet and Jean-Louis Paquet, from neighbouring Guadeloupe.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Marie-Galante comprises three communes of France: Grand-Bourg, Capesterre-de-Marie-Galante, and Saint-Louis, Guadeloupe, with a combined 1999 census population of 12,488 inhabitants. The island is more commonly known as la grande galette (‘the Big Biscuit’) due to its round shape and almost flat surface; its highest peak, the Morne Constant Hill, rises to 204 m. Formerly having over 106 sugar mills, it is also called "the Island of a Hundred Windmills" (lîle aux cent moulins). It is also nicknamed the Grande dépendance, being the biggest dependency of Guadeloupe. The island is undulating substrate calcareous, cooled by the trade winds and subject to cyclones and earthquakes.</p><br>
<p>The northern coast is characterized by a high cliff. A fault line called the "Bar" separates the northern quarter from the remainder of the island. To the west, beaches and mangroves extend along the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of Saint-Louis and the Vieux-Fort run through the plateau that sits at the center of Marie-Galante. In the East and the South, the plateau descends sharply to a coastal plain skirting the Atlantic Ocean from which it is protected by a barrier coral reef.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The colonial economy was based on the cultivation of tobacco, indigo, coffee and cotton. But from the 17th century, sugar cane became an important source of income. This continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, adapting to the abolition of slavery and the great sugar crisis.</p><br>
<p>During the dominance of the sugar cane industry, Marie-Galante acquired the nickname "the island with a hundred mills". In 1818 there were over one hundred mills to process sugar cane. The cane juice was transformed into sugar or rum. The mills were originally powered by oxen, replaced by windmills from 1780, in turn replaced by steam powered mills from 1883.</p><br>
<p>The 19th century brought the disappearance of the former economic model. Gradually the small-scale sugar refining was processed in larger factories, by 1885 the five sites controlled the industry. In 1931, eighteen sugar distilleries and four factories were in production. In the 20th century, the large plantations gave place to small farms, organized into co-operatives. But agriculture in the French West Indies is subject to global competition and by the beginning of the 21st century, one sugar refinery (usine de Grande-Anse) and three distilleries (Bellevue, Bielle, and Poisson) remained on Marie-Galante. The white rum they produced is subject to an appellation d&#39;origine contrôlée. Organic sugar production could be an innovative development, but the current political situation ended European subsidies putting the current agricultural practices in jeopardy and thus threatens the economic future of Marie-Galante and its inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Remnants of the old economy still exist and Marie-Galante&#39;s rich history is a tourist attraction: a nature trail with 70 points of interest including two restored windmills (the Bézard Mill and the Bellevue Distillery), colonial dwellings and old sugar refineries (the Murat House and Mill) produces a network of paths for hikers to discover the island and its people.</p><br>
<p>Like the other islands in the region, Marie-Galante has undergone the economic transformation accompanying tourism. But the tourism development is based on a policy of conserving nature and heritage, whether it is pre-Columbian, colonial or contemporary. Marie-Galante Airport is located on Pointe des Basses, halfway between Grand-Bourg and Capesterre making access to the airport difficult.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>Marie-Galante had 30,000 inhabitants in 1946. There was an exodus for people going to Guadeloupe and France and the island had fewer than 12,009 inhabitants in the 2006 census. This population decline is related to the decrease in the sugar cane economy. The population density in 2006 was 76 people per km².</p><br>
<h2>People</h2><br>
<p>Constant dAubigné (1585–1647) was governor of Marie-Galante, accompanied by his daughter, Francoise dAubigné. Several years later she became Marquise de Maintenon, secret wife of Louis XIV of France. Due to her time in the West Indies she was known by the nickname "Beautiful Indian".</p><br>
<p>Charles-François Bonneville (1803–?) was mayor and general councillor of Grand-Bourg from 1854 to 1860. As president of the Chamber of Agriculture, he was the architect of the revival of cultivating long-thread cotton, which he pioneered at the Thibault estate.</p><br>
<p>Armand Baptiste, the premier Guadeloupean sculptor, resides on Marie-Galante.</p><br>
<p>Pilot Butte is an extinct volcano located in Bend, Oregon. It is a cinder cone butte which rises nearly 500 ft above the surrounding plains. Bend is one of four cities in the United States to have a volcano within its boundaries. Portland is the only other city in Oregon with a volcano within its city limits, with Mount Tabor. Jackson Volcano in Jackson, Mississippi and Diamond Head in Honolulu being the others.</p><br>
<p>The 114.22 acre Pilot Butte State Scenic Viewpoint, presented as a gift to the State of Oregon in 1928, is a Bend icon. Pilot Butte itself is a popular hiking destination with two trails to the summit, each gaining about 490 ft in elevation. There is also a 1.8 mile trail around the base of Pilot Butte that was constructed in 2010. A scenic road also winds up and around the cone. The park had 881,722 annual visits as reported on the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department website in 2014 making it the most visited Oregon State Park east of the Cascade Mountains. From the top, the entire city of Bend is visible, as well as several major Cascade peaks. Most prominent are the Three Sisters, Broken Top, and Mount Bachelor which are located about 20 mi to the west. The City of Bend launches 4th of July fireworks from Pilot Butte each year. Pilot Butte was named in 1851 by Thomas Clark, leader of the first party of European settlers to camp on the future site of Bend. The Clark wagon train approached the area from the east after recovering from the Clark Massacre.</p><br>
<p>Ilhéu das Rolas is an islet in São Tomé and Príncipe, in Africa. The island lies on the equator, off the southern tip of São Tomé Island separated by Canal das Rolas. It is in the Caué District of São Tomé Province. The island is home to a small resort, the Pestana Equador.</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<h2>About the islet</h2><br>
<p>The main and dominant economic activity is tourism, related mainly to the resort. A permanent population of approximately 200 people works in the island&#39;s tourism sector. The center of the settlement may be the closest to the Equator on the planet.</p><br>
<p>The island can only be accessed by boat departing from São Tomé Island.</p><br>
<p>Much of the southern part is in the Southern Hemisphere, its total area of that portion covering over 80% of the island covers 5 km&sup2; of the islet and only less than 1% of the nation. The island has a small geyser named Furnas. Numerous beaches dominates including one by the resort, Santo António and Café.</p><br>
<p>The islet also has a lighthouse (better as Ilhéu das Rolas and not Gago Coutinho), it was built in 1929, over a decade after the completion of the monument. As it sits on a hill, its focal height is 106 meters and its range is about 20 km (12 nmi). It is located in the Northern Hemishpere and is not far from the opposite hemispere.</p><br>
<h2>Confirmation of equatorial position</h2><br>
<p>Gago Coutinho (1869–1959), officer of the Portuguese Navy, navigator and historian, headed a geodesic mission to São Tomé between 1915 and 1918, when marks were placed as a basis for a geodetic network in the archipelago. After that, observations for triangulation, precise base measurement and astronomical observations were made.</p><br>
<p>In the process, Gago Coutinho proved that Ilhéu das Rolas is crossed by the equatorial line. The resulting map was published in 1919, together with the Report of the Geodetic Mission on São Tomé Island 1915–1918, that was officially considered the first complete work of practical geodesy in the Portuguese colonies.</p><br>
<p>The Myrtles Plantation is a historic home and former antebellum plantation in St. Francisville, Louisiana, United States. Built in 1796 by General David Bradford, it is touted as "one of America&#39;s most haunted homes."</p><br>
<h2>House and grounds</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Sited on a hill, the eastward facing frame house, with a clapboard exterior, is built in the Creole cottage-style that characterized many Louisiana plantation houses in the 19th-century. The original house was built in 1796 and featured six bays and three dormers on the roof. In the mid-1850s, the one-and-a-half-story house was extended south, almost doubling its size, and increased to nine bays including a new double door entrance. The entry doors are surrounded with a transom and sidelights, showcasing original hand-painted stained glass, etched and patterned after the French cross to allegedly ward off evil. The main feature of the Myrtles is the 125-foot long veranda that extends the entire length of the façade, and wraps around the southern end of the house. The ornamental cast-iron railing, with an elaborate grape-cluster design, supports a broad Doric entablature, and on the gabled roof, with six brick chimneys, are two large double paned, pedimented dormers with Doric style pilasters, interspersed with three single paned dormers. When the original roof of the house was extended to encompass the new addition, the existing dormers were copied to maintain a smooth line. The west facing rear façade features a central, open loggia that is enclosed on three sides by the house, and on the roof are five pedimented dormers identical to the front.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The Myrtles has 22 rooms spread over two floors. The spacious entry hall runs the length of the house and features faux-bois, open pierced friezework molding, a French Baccarat crystal chandelier weighing more than 300 pounds and a cantilevered staircase. The flooring and most of the windows in the house are original. To the left of the hall is the music room that is adjacent to the only bedroom found on the first floor. The principal rooms of the house are found to the right of the hall. The walls of the original house were removed and repositioned to create four large rooms that were used as identical ladies and gentlemen&#39;s parlors, a formal dining room and a game room. The two parlors feature Carrara marble mantles in the Rococo Revival-style on the north and south walls, and are crowned with elaborate plaster cornices and ceiling medallions, made from a mixture of clay, Spanish moss and cattle hair, with no two being the same.</p><br>
<p>The second floor features five bedrooms with en-suite bathrooms. The largest bedroom, known as the Judge Clarke Woodruff Suite, is the only room that is accessed by the main staircase in the entry hall. The remaining four bedrooms, that are separated by a common sitting room, are accessed by a staircase that ascends from the rear loggia. The floor of these bedrooms were raised one foot when the house was renovated, as the addition had higher ceilings than the original house.</p><br>
<h3>Grounds</h3><br>
<p>The current plantation landscape is centered on a large pond that features a small island centered with a gazebo accessed by a bridge. To the rear of the main house is the oldest structure on the grounds. Now known as the General&#39;s Store, this was where General Bradford lived while the main house was being built. Currently it is used as the gift shop, laundry facilities, plantation offices and guest breakfast spot. To the south is another structure that houses a restaurant. The two ancillary buildings are connected to the main house by a 5,000 ft&sup2; old brick courtyard. Scattered elsewhere on the grounds are modern wooden cottages available to guests.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th-century</h3><br>
<p>The Myrtles Plantation was built in 1796 by General David Bradford on 600 acres and was named "Laurel Grove." Bradford lived there alone for several years, until President John Adams pardoned him for his role in the Pennsylvania Whiskey Rebellion in 1799. He then moved his wife Elizabeth and their five children to the plantation from Pennsylvania. Upon Bradfords death in 1808, his widow Elizabeth continued running the plantation until 1817, when she handed the management to Clarke Woodruff, one of Bradfords former law students, who had married her daughter, Sara Mathilda. The Woodruffs had three children: Cornelia Gale, James, and Mary Octavia, before Sara Mathilda and two of her three children died in 1823 and 1824 of yellow fever.</p><br>
<p>When Elizabeth Bradford died in 1831, Clarke Woodruff and his surviving daughter Mary Octavia moved to Covington, Louisiana, and left a caretaker to manage the plantation. In 1834, Woodruff sold the plantation, the land, and its slaves to Ruffin Gray Stirling. Stirling and his wife, Mary Catherine Cobb, undertook an extensive remodeling of the house, nearly doubling the size of the former building, and filling the house with imported furniture from Europe. It was during this time that the name was changed to "The Myrtles" after the crepe myrtles that grew in the vicinity. Stirling died in 1854 and left the plantation to his wife.</p><br>
<p>The Myrtles survived the American Civil War, though robbed of its fine furnishings and expensive accessories. In 1865, Mary Cobb Stirling hired William Drew Winter to help manage the plantation as her lawyer and agent. Winter was married to Stirling&#39;s daughter, Sarah, and they went on to have six children, one of whom (Kate Winter) died from typhoid at the age of three. The family fortune was lost in the aftermath of the war due to it being tied up in Confederate currency, and the Winters were forced to sell the plantation in 1868, but were able to buy it back two years later. In 1871, William Winter was killed on the porch of the house, possibly by a man named E.S. Webber. Sarah remained at the Myrtles with her mother and siblings until 1878, when she died. Mary Cobb Stirling died in 1880, and the plantation passed to her son Stephen. The plantation was heavily in debt, however, and Stephen sold it in 1886 to Oran D. Brooks, who in turn sold it in 1889. The plantation changed hands several times until 1891, when it was purchased by Harrison Milton Williams.</p><br>
<h3>20th-century</h3><br>
<p>In the early part of the 20th-century, the land surrounding the house was divided among the heirs of Harrison Milton Williams. In the 1950s, the house itself was sold to Marjorie Munson, who apparently noticed odd things happening around the Myrtles resulting in numerous ghost stories. The plantation went through several more ownership changes in the 1970s before being bought by James and Frances Kermeen Myers who ran the plantation house as a bed and breakfast. During this time Frances Myers, writing as Frances Kermeen, wrote a book about the Myrtles Plantation, naming it as the most haunted house in America. The current owners, John and Teeta Moss, continue to open the house for tours and overnight guests.</p><br>
<h3>21st-century</h3><br>
<p>In August 2014, a fire occurred in the historical General&#39;s Store, located just 10 feet from the main house, causing substantial damage. Fortunately, the most severe damage was in an extension of the building constructed in 2008 leaving most of the original structure intact and not harming the house at all. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the Myrtles Plantation continues to be a popular tourist attraction due to its association with paranormal activity, and has been featured in many books, magazines, newspapers and television shows.</p><br>
<h2>Legends and ghost stories</h2><br>
<p>The plantation house is rumored to be on top of an ancient Tunica Indian burial ground. It is currently a bed and breakfast, and offers historical and mystery tours. Touted as "one of America&#39;s most haunted homes", the plantation is supposedly the home of at least 12 ghosts. It is often reported that 10 murders occurred in the house, but historical records only indicate the murder of William Winter. William Drew Winter is also a very popular character in the plantation. He was an attorney who lived in the plantation from 1865 until 1871. He was shot by a stranger. After being shot, he staggered inside the house and died trying to climb the stairs. He died on the 17th step of the stairs. Until today, visitors, as well as employees in the hotel, still hear his dying footsteps.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, Unsolved Mysteries filmed a segment about the alleged hauntings at the plantation. According to host Robert Stack, the production crew experienced technical difficulties during the production of the segment. The Myrtles was also featured on a 2005 episode of Ghost Hunters. The TV series Ghost Adventures also filmed an episode there. The television series Most Terrifying Places in America profiled the plantation.</p><br>
<p>Saratoga Spa State Park is a 2,379 acre state park located in Saratoga County, New York in the United States. The park is in the City of Saratoga Springs, near US 9 and NY 50.</p><br>
<p>The grounds contain mineral springs, classical bath and spa houses, and the Saratoga Performing Arts Center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area, part of which became the park, drew interest from Mohawk and Iroquois Native American tribes for its hunting and mineral springs. The Native American name for the area was Kayaderosseras. The first recorded use of the springs was by Sir William Johnson during the French and Indian War, who was brought to Saratoga to recover from wounds.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, the area became much visited for its purported medicinal effects. Entrepreneurs dug wells and bottled the mineral water for sale and gas companies sold the carbonation to soda fountains. In 1907, the stage was set to protect the springs in a lawsuit Frank Hathorn vs. Dr. Strongs Sanitarium, which showed that pumping on one well decreased the flow of water in wells across the city. The court certified the relationship between wells and when Dr. Strong stopped pumping, the flow of water in Mr. Hathorns well resumed its natural flow. In 1908, as the springs were being depleted, the New York Assembly passed an injunction against pumping water; however the injunction was ignored. In 1909, governor Charles Evans Hughes signed into law a bill that made the springs of Saratoga a state reservation.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s, Reconstruction Finance Corporation funds were used to develop bath houses, research facilities and a drink hall. The Saratoga Reservation was designed with graded walkways intended to help rehabilitate those with heart conditions. After World War II veterans were welcomed as part of their readjustment and Holocaust survivors began using the baths as part of their healing process.</p><br>
<p>The spa was named a state park in 1962. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, it was confirmed by state officials that the reportedly "pure" mineral water used in the public baths at the state park was actually mixed with tap water from a nearby source.</p><br>
<h2>Park features</h2><br>
<h3>Springs</h3><br>
<p>The Saratoga Springs area has the only active spouting geysers east of the Mississippi River in the United States. The mineral springs for which the area is famous arise from fissures in the Saratoga Fault, which runs 65 mi from Whitehall to Albany. The carbonated water that vents in springs and geysers is rich in minerals and salts.</p><br>
<p>Two of the most visited springs today are Geyser Island Spouter and Orenda Spring, along Geyser Creek. Geyser Island Spouter, which sends a narrow plume of water 10 to 15 ft into the air, first emerged in the early 1900s. Since that time, it has deposited minerals that grow a tufa deposit at the rate of 2 in per year. Orenda Spring has created a massive tufa dome, which continues to fossilize leaves and other debris as it grows.</p><br>
<h4>Springs in operation</h4><br>
<p>Hathorne</p><br>
<p>Orenda</p><br>
<p>Hayes</p><br>
<p>Charlie</p><br>
<p>Geyser Island</p><br>
<p>State Seal</p><br>
<p>Polaris</p><br>
<p>Lincoln (Baths)</p><br>
<h3>Venues and museums</h3><br>
<p>The park hosts theater and other events. The Saratoga Performing Arts Center, located on the state park grounds, has been the summer home of the Philadelphia Orchestra and New York City Ballet since 1966. The SPAC Amphitheater is 110 ft high, sits in a natural, curved bowl bordered by large pine trees. The amphitheater has seating for 5,100 and the lawn can hold an additional 25,000 people.</p><br>
<p>The park contains the Spa Little Theater, which hosts plays throughout the year. The Spa Little Theater is located on the north side of the park office.</p><br>
<p>The park is also home to the National Museum of Dance and Hall of Fame, the Saratoga Automobile Museum, the Lincoln Mineral Baths and Spa, and the Gideon Putnam Resort & Spa.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>Saratoga Spa State Park offers a variety of recreational opportunities, some of which require small admission fees.</p><br>
<p>several pools are available at the park. The "Peerless Pool" is a complex of three pools, including a children&#39;s pool, water slides, and a zero depth entry Olympic-sized swimming pool. The "Victoria Pool" is a smaller pool located near the golf course and surrounded by covered arcades. It was built when the original park buildings were constructed. The bath house was on the north end and the golf house was on the south end. Today the former golf house has been converted to a restaurant.</p><br>
<p>The park also has tennis courts, two golf courses, picnic areas, horseshoe pits, softball fields, and volleyball courts. Several picnic pavilions are equipped with electricity and all are near restrooms.</p><br>
<p>A stretch of Geyser Creek is located in the park and offers opportunities for fishing. Trails for hiking and snowshoeing are also found within the park. The park hosts ice skating in the winter and interpretive programs throughout the year. It also hosts a Winterfest and the annual New York State Section 2 Cross Country Championships.</p><br>
<p>Caleb Smith State Park Preserve is a state park located in Suffolk County, New York in the United States. The park is near the north shore of Long Island in the town of Smithtown. Prior to its current name, the park was called Nissequogue River State Park, a name now used for park lands on the former Kings Park Psychiatric Center grounds. Previously, it was simply known as the Wyandanch Preserve.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Originally part of the estate of Caleb Smith (1724–1800), the great grandson of Richard "Bull" Smith, the house was built in 1753 with his father Daniel Smith II. Although it has undergone many renovations, much of the original house still stands within the present building. The house was moved in either 1955 or 1958 to a plot of land behind the Smithtown Main Public Library in the Village of the Branch, New York.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the 19th century, the original house was expanded considerably. By 1888 it was bought by the Brooklyn Gun Club, and converted into a sportsman’s hunting and fishing preserve. The property was named the "Wyandanch Club" in 1893. In 1963, it was acquired by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>The Wyandanch Club Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places as a national historic district in 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Park description</h2><br>
<p>The 548 acre park is managed primarily as a nature preserve, and offers space for passive recreation such as hiking, fishing, and cross-country skiing. The park also offers recreation programs, a nature museum with wildlife displays, and a nature trail.</p><br>
<p>Two branches of the Nissequogue River pass through the park, which also includes the Wyandanch Club Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>Ganondagan State Historic Site,  also known as Boughton Hill, is a Native American historic site in Ontario County, New York in the United States. Location of the largest Seneca village of the 17th century, the site is in the present-day Town of Victor, southwest of the Village of Victor. The village was also referred to in various spellings as Gannagaro, Canagora, Gandagora, and Gandagaro.</p><br>
<p>It consists of two areas: the 245 acre Boughton Hill portion, the area of longhouses and burials, has been designated as a National Historic Landmark. It has been identified as the location of the Jesuit Mission of St. Jacques (or St. James), which was mentioned in the Jesuit Relations. The Fort Hill portion was the location of a fortified granary and consists of 33 acres; it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The complex is operated by the state of New York.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Seneca traditions</h3><br>
<p>Like many indigenous peoples, the Seneca cultivated the Three Sisters: staple crops of corn, beans, and squash. Women bred and cultivated different varieties of each staple, experimenting with a range of seeds. These crops were typically grown near each other, so that beans could climb the cornstalks, and the typically large leaves of squashes would prevent weeds from growing.</p><br>
<p>Ganondagan was once the largest Seneca town; the Seneca nation was considered to occupy the western gateway of Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) territory. This site is at the center of the story of the Peacemaker, who unified the five major peoples and created the Haudenosaunee confederacy. It survives to this day.</p><br>
<p>Seneca oral tradition tells of a Huron man who arrived among the Mohawk speaking of the Gayanesshagowa (aka The Great Law of Peace). This prophet is known today as The Great Peacemaker. The Mohawk, Oneida, and Cayuga pledged to join his proposed confederation and, following a dramatic interlude, the Seneca agreed also.</p><br>
<p>The discussion about how to bring in the Onondaga took place in the Ganondagan house of Jikonsase (or Jikonhsaseh), a Seneca woman elder now known as the "Mother of Nations." She proposed a solution which eventually brought the Onondaga into the fold, for it gave them a prominent place in the confederacy. She lived in the vicinity of Ganondagan, and is buried nearby.</p><br>
<p>Because of this tradition, the Seneca refer to Ganondagan as the "Town of Peace". They revere and protect the burial site of Jikonsase. The relation to their Great Law of Peace is more important than the attack that destroyed the village, for the people have carried forward their means of negotiating for solutions. Concepts of the confederacy may have influenced early American political thinkers, although they gathered similar ideas from English and European thinkers.</p><br>
<h3>Contact with Europeans</h3><br>
<p>In 1656, Jesuit Father Pierre-Joseph-Marie Chaumonot traveled from the Cayuga nation to the Seneca nation. Then, "Having assembled all the Elders of Gandagan, the principal village of Sonnontouan, and having bestowed the presents that are usually given as tokens of alliance, he commenced in a fervent and loud tone to explain the principal truths of the Gospel, which he sealed with the three finest presents of all, which he had reserved for this purpose."</p><br>
<p>By the close of 1668, the Jesuits had established a mission in each of the five Iroquois nations; the Seneca, and the Mission of St. Jacques, had been assigned to Father James Fremin. The Seneca finally forced the missionaries to leave in 1684, after rising tension with the French.</p><br>
<p>In August 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Father René de Bréhant de Galinée, traveled to Ganondagan via Irondequoit. Galinée wrote:</p><br>
<p>In 1677, Wentworth Greenhalgh, an English colonial government official, traveled to the Iroquois nations and secured them as allies for the British. One of his stops was at Ganondagan, which he referred to as Canagora and as Canagorah:</p><br>
<p>Greenhalgh wrote that none of the Seneca towns were "stockadoed" (stockaded), and related the following incident:</p><br>
<p>In 1678, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Father Louis Hennepin traveled to Ganondagan, which Hennepin called Tagorondies. Hennepin remarked on the presence of Jesuits Julien Garnier and Pierre Raffeix, and a "little Chapel made of Barks of Trees". About the inhabitants, he wrote:</p><br>
<h3>Destruction of Ganondagan</h3><br>
<p>On June 13, 1687, Marquis de Denonville led an army from Canada, which consisted of 832 colonial regulars, more than 900 Canadian militia, and some 400 Indian allies, to eliminate the Seneca as competitors in the international fur trade. Native American tribes fought each other, too, in trying to gain power in the fur trade.</p><br>
<p>Denonville writes that on July 13, the French force, closing in on Ganondagan, were attacked by a Seneca force of 800, but after a short engagement "they soon resolved to fly." Denonville described the French casualties as 5 or 6 killed and 20 wounded, while the Seneca casualties were 45 killed and 60 wounded. However, a British report, based on interviews of Seneca warriors, states that the Seneca force consisted of 450 people, including 350 boys, 100 men, and 5 women "who engaged as well as the men".</p><br>
<p>The British report states that most of the villagers had been moved that day to Cajouge (Cayuga) and some to a lake to the south. "As soon as the women and children were fled, their fired their own Castles." L&#39;Abbe de Belmont wrote that the Seneca "came to reconnoiter us and then went to burn their village and take to flight."</p><br>
<p>Upon the French arrival at the village on the 14th, Denonville reports, "we found it burned" and a nearby fort abandoned. The French killed "a vast quantity of hogs", and, from the four Seneca villages they visited, destroyed 1.2 million bushels of stored and standing corn. The force turned west and destroyed the village of Totiakton (aka Tiotohatton or La Conception) before returning to their boats at Irondequoit.</p><br>
<p>After the battle, the community movement was checked by the disaster of the French invasion and turned eastward. The two villages of Gandagora and Gandougarae seem to have joined in this eastward movement and to have settled first at Canandaigua and later in the region east of Canandaigua Lake.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War, the Sullivan Expedition of 1779 attacked the Seneca in scattered towns at Geneva, Canandaigua and along Seneca Lake (New York) (see Kanadaseaga).</p><br>
<h3>Later use</h3><br>
<p>For more than a hundred years after the American Revolutionary War, the Seneca used this area for agriculture. In the 1930s, their chief Freeman Johnson began to work to preserve the property, as looters were stealing artifacts. In 1964 Boughton Hill was designated as a National Historic Landmark, and in 1987 the state historic park was established.</p><br>
<p>The Seneca have made many contributions to the United States throughout its history. The political ideals which the Seneca had were contributed to the USA Constitution. The Senecas matrilineal kinship system gave considerable power to women, as inheritance and property were passed through the maternal line. Children were considered born into their mothers family and clan, which determined their social status. In 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York, American women created a proclamation of rights to achieve similar power. They did not receive the vote until 1920.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>Ganondagan, site of a major 17th-century Seneca village, has a reconstructed Seneca longhouse and a small visitors center. The original town site covered nine acres, with dwellings and stores, fields, and areas for livestock. This area was the location of nearly 150 longhouses, as well as the burial grounds of the people. The village was surrounded by extensive corn fields and a large, fortified granary was at the Fort Hill site. It was considered the "breadbasket" for the Haudenosaunee. The Seneca supplied many of the Iroquois with corn.</p><br>
<p>The site includes miles of trails over more than 560 acres of property in the park. The Friends of Ganondagan have worked to preserve the Ganondagan land and Seneca cultural traditions.</p><br>
<p>The Walter F. George Lake, named for Walter F. George , a United States Senator from Georgia, is formed on the Chattahoochee River along the state line between Alabama and Georgia. It is also widely known by the name, Lake Eufaula — particularly in Alabama, where the state legislature passed a resolution on June 25, 1963, to give the lake that name. The 46,000-acre lake extends north about 85 mi from the Walter F. George Lock and Dam  and has approximately 640 mi of shoreline. Popular activities along the lake include camping and trophy fishing.</p><br>
<p>The lake is primarily controlled by the US Army Corp of Engineers. The states control several other protected lands along the lake, including the Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge and Lakepoint State Park in Alabama, and Florence Marina and George T. Bagby state parks in Georgia.</p><br>
<p>The flooding of the land in the area covered numerous historic and prehistoric sites associated with Native American culture. Indigenous peoples had lived along the river for thousands of years. The unincorporated area of Oketeyeconne, Georgia, which historically had a majority of Native American residents, was evacuated in the 1950s to allow creation of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lake Kissimmee is a lake located about 15 mi east of Lake Wales, Florida, USA. The lake is almost entirely in Osceola County, but the western shore, and a small part of the lake, is in Polk County.</p><br>
<p>Lake Kissimmee State Park is rich with wildlife, including bald eagles, white tailed deer, alligators, ospreys, bobcats, turkeys, and sandhill cranes. The main attraction is its "cow camp" where visitors can learn about 1876 era Florida cowboys.</p><br>
<p>The Joe Overstreet Road access to the lake is an internationally known area for birdwatching, with sandhill cranes, introduced whooping cranes, bald eagles, black vultures, and shorebirds prominent.</p><br>
<p>There are at least five islands in the lake. The largest is Brahma Island in the south. It is followed in size by Sturm Island in the north, which is separated from the mainland only by a narrow waterway. The other islands are Bird Island, Rabbit Island and Ox Island in the eastern part of the lake. Also Ox Island is separated from the mainland only by a very narrow waterway.</p><br>
<p>Barentsøya, sometimes anglicized as Barents Island, is an island in the Svalbard archipelago of Norway, lying between Edgeøya and Spitsbergen. Barents Island has no permanent human inhabitants. Named for the Dutch explorer Willem Barents , it is a part of Søraust-Svalbard Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<p>Barentsøya is an Arctic island. Around 43 per cent of its area of 1,288 km&sup2; is glaciated. To the north, in the sound between Barentsøya and Spitsbergen, lies the island of Kükenthaløya. To the south, the sound separating Barents Island from Edgeøya is Freemansundet.</p><br>
<p>In geologic time much of the surface rock has been eroded by glaciation. The entire area is visited by polar bears, who have a recognisable genetic differentiation specialised to the Barents Sea region. At Dørstubukta there is also a large nesting mainly used by kittiwakes.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Barentsøya has an approximately square shape, with maximum lengths and widths of about fifty kilometers, and an area of 1,288 km&sup2;. A significant part of the island, more than 500 km&sup2, is glaciated. The ice cap of Barentsjøkulen covers a large part of the island, with the largest offsprings Besselsbreen (north), Duckwitzbreen (west), Freemanbreen (south), and Hübnerbreen (southeast). Barentsjøkulen has the two large ice domes of Peer Gyntslottet and Solveigdomen. The mountain of Schweinfurthberget is a nunatak of Barentsjøkulen.</p><br>
<p>At the northern side of Barentsøya is the ice-free peninsula of Frankenhalvøya, between Ginevra Bay at the western side and Dorstbukta to the east. Grimheia is an ice-free mountainous area extending over a length of about thirteen kilometers at the northern part of the island. The westernmost point of the island is the headland of Mistakodden. At the southern part of Barentsøya are the mountains of Krefftberget and Høgrinden, while Jeppeberget is located to the southeast. The largest lakes of the island are Veslemjøsa in Heimarka, and Dalskilvatnet between the valleys of Sjodalen and Grimdalen.</p><br>
<p>The Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium, and in some official documents as the Amvrakikos Gulf , is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in northwestern Greece. About 40 km long and 15 km wide, it is one of the largest enclosed gulfs in Greece. The towns of Preveza, Amphilochia , and Vonitsa lie on its shores.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The gulf takes its name from the ancient city of Ambracia located near its shores. Its alternative name comes from the medieval (and modern) city of Arta, located in the same place as ancient Ambracia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The entrance to the gulf is through a 700-meter wide channel between Aktio (ancient Actium) on the south and Preveza on the north; a recent road tunnel connects the two. The gulf is quite shallow, and its shore is broken by numerous marshes, large parts of which form an estuary system. The Louros and Arachthos (or Arta) rivers drain into it; for this reason it is warmer and less salty than the Ionian, and a current flows from the gulf into the sea. It is rich in grey mullet, sole, and eel.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Ambracian Gulf was the site of the Battle of Actium, in which Augustus&#39; forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. From Greek independence (Treaty of Constantinople, 1832) until the Second Balkan War (Treaty of Bucharest, 1913), the gulf formed part of the border between the Kingdom of Greece and the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<p>The remains of numerous ancient cities lie on its shores: Actium at the entrance, where the famous Battle of Actium was fought in 31 BC; Nicopolis, Argos Ippatum, Limnaea, and Olpae.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Since 2002, the northern and southern sides at the mouth of the gulf are connected by the Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel. The tunnel greatly shortens the travel distance across the gulf, which used to be possible only by ferry.</p><br>
<p>The Circus World Museum is a large museum complex in Baraboo, Wisconsin, devoted to circus-related history. The museum, which features not only circus artifacts and exhibits, but also hosts daily live circus performances throughout the summer, is owned by the Wisconsin Historical Society and operated by the non-profit Circus World Museum Foundation. The museum was the major participant in the Great Circus Parade held from 1963 to 2009.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Circus World Museum is located in Baraboo, Wisconsin, because Baraboo was home to the Ringling Brothers. It was from Baraboo in 1884 that the Ringling Brothers Circus began their first tour as a circus. Over six seasons, the circus expanded from a wagon show to a railroad show with 225 employees, touring cities across the United States each summer. Baraboo remained the circus&#39;s headquarters and wintering grounds until 1918, when the Ringling Brothers Circus combined with the Barnum and Bailey Circus, which the Ringling Brothers had bought out in 1908. The combined entity, Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, was successful until 2017 when it took its final bow on Sunday May 21, 2017, at Long Island City in New York state.</p><br>
<p>In 1954, John M. Kelley, a former attorney for the Ringling Brothers, incorporated Circus World Museum with the intent of forming a museum of the Ringling Brothers Circus and circus history in general. By this time the popularity of circuses and other live shows was declining in favor of new media, such as television. After an initial period of organization and fundraising, the museum acquired a large site in Baraboo that included the former wintering grounds of the Ringling Brothers Circus. This site was deeded to the State Historical Society of Wisconsin (now called the Wisconsin Historical Society) to be used as the museum&#39;s location, and Circus World Museum opened to the public on July 1, 1959.</p><br>
<p>Owned by the Wisconsin Historical Society, the museum sits on some of the land owned by the Ringlings, and includes eight of the ten remaining Ringling buildings on the grounds. Circus World Museum holds one of the largest collections of circus materials in the world, including circus wagons, posters, photography, and artifacts used by shows from all over the United States. The museum also has smaller collections of Wild West shows and carnival materials.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibits</h2><br>
<p>Circus World Museum encompasses several buildings holding numerous exhibits on circus history.</p><br>
<p>Ringlingville consists of the remaining buildings of the original wintering grounds of the Ringling Brothers Circus, a National Historic Landmark. Buildings in Ringlingville include the Ring Barn, Elephant House, Animal House, Baggage Horse Barn, Winter Quarters Office, and Wardrobe Department. Tours of Ringlingville present information on the history of the Ringling Brothers Circus, as well as offering behind the scenes glimpses into the efforts taken by the circus while preparing for shows.</p><br>
<p>The Irvin Feld Exhibit Hall is the museum&#39;s largest building, and houses exhibits on the history of the Ringling Brothers Circus, as well as other exhibits relating to general aspects of circuses and circus history.</p><br>
<p>The Hippodrome is a permanent big-top which houses the museum&#39;s daily circus and magic show performances.</p><br>
<p>The W.W. Deppe Wagon Pavilion houses a collection of fifty restored antique circus wagons.</p><br>
<p>The C.P. Fox Wagon Restoration Center is used by the museum to refurbish Circus Wagons, and visitors to the building can view in wagon restorations that are in progress.</p><br>
<p>The Robert L. Parkinson Library and Research Center is a research facility holding collections of circus-related books, photographs, archives, and periodicals. The library is open to the public at no charge while staff are present.</p><br>
<h2>Great Circus Parade</h2><br>
<p>The Great Circus Parade, which featured historic circus wagons from the Circus World Museum, was held in Milwaukee in 1963, and in various cities between 1985 and 2005, primarily Milwaukee (1985–2003) and Baraboo, Wisconsin (2004–2005), and Chicago, Illinois. When held in Milwaukee, the parade entailed a two-day journey by train across Wisconsin, from Baraboo to Milwaukee, making brief stops at cities along the way. An encampment on Milwaukee&#39;s lake front allowed visitors to view the circus wagons up close, take elephant, camel, and zebra rides, and view historical circus artifacts. The parade itself took a three-mile route through downtown Milwaukee. It was on hiatus during the mid-2000s, but it returned to Milwaukee in 2009. The parade is expected to run every few years in the future.</p><br>
<p>Gore Place is a historic country house, now a museum, located at 52 Gore Street, Waltham, Massachusetts. It is owned and operated by the nonprofit Gore Place Society. The 45 acre estate is open to the public daily without charge; an admission fee is charged for house tours. A number of special events are held throughout the year including an annual sheepshearing festival and a summer concert series.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was built in 1806 as a summer home for Massachusetts lawyer and politician Christopher Gore. In this house the Gores entertained various notables including the Marquis de Lafayette, Daniel Webster, and James Monroe. The property was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 in recognition of its architectural significance as a large-scale Federal style country house, and for its well-preserved domestic staff quarters, which illustrate the changing role of domestic labor over time.</p><br>
<h2>Christopher Gore</h2><br>
<p>Christopher Gore (1758–1827) was a Massachusetts lawyer, banker, statesman, and Federalist politician. Educated at Harvard, Gore made a fortune speculating in American Revolutionary War debt in the 1780s, becoming, according to John Quincy Adams, the wealthiest lawyer in the country. In the 1790s he embarked on a career in politics and diplomacy, winning one term as Governor of Massachusetts in 1809. He was appointed to the United States Senate in 1813, serving until ill health prompted his resignation in 1816.</p><br>
<h2>Beginning of the Waltham estate</h2><br>
<p>In 1785 Gore married Rebecca Amory Payne. She was the daughter of Edward Payne, a wealthy Boston merchant and banker. In 1786 they used the funds from her dowry to purchase a roughly 50 acre tract in Waltham, Massachusetts for use as a country estate. The estate was later expanded by further purchase until it was 400 acre in size. In 1789 the Gores realized a windfall from his financial speculations, and acquired the trappings of high society in Massachusetts. In 1789 they purchased a mansion on fashionable Bowdoin Square in Boston, and in 1793 they had the house on the Waltham property torn down and replaced by a wood-frame mansion (said to be in the style of noted Federal style architect Samuel McIntire) and carriage house for use as a summer estate.</p><br>
<h2>Fire and new construction</h2><br>
<p>In 1796 Gore was appointed by President George Washington to be a commissioner in London dealing with maritime issues pursuant to the Jay Treaty between the United States and Great Britain. The Gores spent the year 1796–1804 in Europe. In 1799 they were informed that the Waltham house had been destroyed by fire, and began planning a replacement. The carriage house was not affected, and still stands on the property.</p><br>
<p>Rebecca Gore was particularly interested in architecture, and six months after their return to London had sketched out plans for a new building. In October 1802 Gore sent some of her sketches to his friend Rufus King, who was vacationing in Paris, requesting that LeGrand draft plans from them. Although there is no definitive evidence that LeGrand drafted the plans used in construction, the house as built has details that are part of his architectural vocabulary. It also betrays the influence of English architect Sir John Soane, some of whose designs the Gores may have seen on tours of England. They may also have seen his recently published Sketches in Architecture.</p><br>
<p>After the Gores returned to Massachusetts in 1804 they began preparations. Construction began on the house in March 1805; it was completed in 1806 at a cost of $23,000. Many materials for the mansion&#39;s constructions (including the bricks) were shipped from England and rafted up the Charles River. During the construction the Gores lived in a wing of the old house that survived the fire; this remnant was then moved to the center of Waltham.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The mansion consists of a central block with symmetrical wings on either side. Each wing consists of a narrow section, or hyphen, with a slightly wider pod at its end. The total length is about 190 ft; the main block, which includes oval protrusions, measures 68 by 40 feet, the hyphens are 40 by 21 feet, and the pods at the ends of the wings are 20 by 32 feet. The main block is 2 1/2 stories high, while the wings are 1 1/2 stories. The building is faced in brick made in Charlestown, Massachusetts. Although it was originally shingled in wood, the roof is now made of slate.</p><br>
<p>The main block and east wing are devoted to public and family space, while the west wing is entirely devoted to servant quarters and facilities.</p><br>
<h3>Carriage house</h3><br>
<p>The 1790s carriage house is a 70 by 40 foot rectangular two story building with a hip roof. It is divided into three sections: the western end was used to store carriages, the eastern to stable horses, and the center, with high doors to facilitate the entry and exit of tall carriages was used for harnessing the carriages. The stable area had seven stalls, and includes distinctive features to facilitate the removal of waste and the supply of food to the animals. The tack room separated the stalls from the central area, also serving to isolate the smell of the stables from the rest of the building.</p><br>
<p>The building was originally located near the entrance to the property, but was relocated in 1968 to facilitate the widening of Gore Street. It has been adapted by the Gore Place Society for use as a function space.</p><br>
<h3>Landscaping</h3><br>
<p>The gardens, according to Charles W. Eliot (father of noted American landscape designer Charles Eliot), show the influence of English landscape architect Humphry Repton, whose Sketches and Hints on Landscape Gardening just predates the Gores presence in England. In keeping with Reptons philosophy, the estate did not have many formal garden areas, and was instead laid out with broad lawns, discreet smaller gardens, and shaded paths that skirted the edges of the property.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The propertys recorded history of ownership dates to early colonial times, when Waltham was part of Watertown. When Watertown was laid out in 1630, its first minister, George Phillips, was granted a 40 acre lot which would become the core of the Gore estate. The estate passed through a variety of hands (including members of the Garfield family who were ancestors of United States President James Garfield, and Revolutionary War soldier Jonathan Brewer) before the Gores purchased it in 1786. From 1744 the property included a tavern, and the area was known as Davenports Corner, after Jonathan Davenport, the first proprietor.</p><br>
<p>The Gores occupied the property until 1834, when Rebecca Gore died (Christopher Gore having died in 1827). They entertained numerous high-profile guests, including President James Monroe, Daniel Webster, and the Marquis de Lafayette.</p><br>
<p>The couple had no children, and according to their wills the contents of the property were auctioned off. The estate was purchased by Theodore Lyman, who built a farmhouse on the farmlands between the mansion and the Charles River. This structure was occupied by the head farmer of the estate, and was moved to its present location in the 20th century after the city took part of the estate by eminent domain for another road project. Lyman made a number of changes to the landscaping of the estate, including the construction of a formal garden area to the north of the main house.</p><br>
<p>The estate next passed through a succession of private hands, until it was acquired in 1921 by the Waltham Country Club. It established a golf course and tennis courts on the estate, but these initiatives failed during the Great Depression and the estate fell into disrepair.</p><br>
<p>In 1935 the bank that took the property planned to sell off the estate for housing, but preservationists from the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities (now Historic New England), the Trustees of Reservations, and the Colonial Dames of America organized a drive to preserve the property. After a fundraising campaign the property was purchased by the Gore Place Society. The Society acquired 75 acre of the original estate, and has rehabilitated its structures. About 30 acre of the estate were leased to Raytheon, and are not open to the public. The rest of the estate is open to the public; house tours are offered for a fee.</p><br>
<p>The Lyman Estate, also known as The Vale, is a historic country house located at 185 Lyman Street, Waltham, Massachusetts. It is now owned by the nonprofit Historic New England organization. The grounds are open to the public daily for free; an admission fee is required for the house.</p><br>
<p>The estate was established in 1793 by Boston merchant Theodore Lyman on 400 acre of grounds, and was the Lyman family&#39;s summer residence for over 150 years. It consisted originally of the mansion and its lawns, gardens, greenhouses, woodlands, a deer park, and a working farm. Today the grounds contain a number of specimen trees, a 600-foot (180 m) brick peach wall, and late 19th century rhododendrons and azaleas introduced by the Lyman family.</p><br>
<p>The fine Federal style mansion, of 24 rooms, was designed by Salem architect Samuel McIntire and completed in 1798. Its grand ballroom, with high ceiling, decorative frieze, large windows, and marble fireplace, was used for formal parties. A smaller oval room was used for family gatherings. McIntire&#39;s design was substantially altered during an expansion of the building in 1882 to designs by Richardson, Hartwell and Driver.</p><br>
<p>The estate&#39;s first greenhouse was constructed before 1800 and is thought to be the oldest in the United States. The Grape House, built in 1804 to raise exotic fruits such as oranges, pineapples, and bananas, today houses extensive grape vines, grown from cuttings taken in 1870 from Hampton Court in England. The Camellia House was built around 1820 for cultivation of camellias, introduced to America via Europe in 1797 from coastal China, Japan, and Korea. Many of the Lyman camellias are more than 100 years old. The greenhouses are open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architecture and for its landscape design, which is remarkably rare for having retained much of its original 18th-century character.</p><br>
<p>The estate was one of the filming locations for the 1979 Merchant Ivory film adaptation of Henry James&#39; novel The Europeans.</p><br>
<p>The Leighton House Museum is in the Holland Park district of Kensington and Chelsea in London. The painter Frederic, Lord Leighton commissioned the architect and designer George Aitchison to build him a combined home and studio. The resulting building, now Grade II* listed, is noted for its elaborate Orientalist and aesthetic interiors.</p><br>
<h2>The house</h2><br>
<p>The museum has been open to the public since 1929. In 1958 the London County Council commemorated Leighton with a blue plaque at the museum. The museum was awarded the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award in 2012. It is open daily except Tuesdays, and is a companion museum to 18 Stafford Terrace, another Victorian artist&#39;s home in Kensington.</p><br>
<p>The house&#39;s pseudo-Islamic court has featured as a set in various film and television programs, such as Nicholas Nickleby (2002), Brazil (1985), and an episode of the drama series Spooks, as well as the music video for the songs "Golden Brown" by The Stranglers and "Gold" by Spandau Ballet.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>Aitchison designed the first part of the house (2 Holland Park Road, later renumbered as 12) in 1864, although Leighton was not granted a lease on the land until April 1866. Building commenced shortly afterwards, and the house, which cost £4500, was ready for occupation by the end of the year. The building is of red Suffolk bricks with Caen Stone dressings in a restrained Classical style.</p><br>
<p>The architect extended the building over 30 years; the first phase was only three windows wide. The main room was the first floor studio, facing north, originally 45 by 25 feet, with a large central window to provide plenty of light for painting. There was also a gallery at the east end, and a separate staircase for use by models. The house was extended to the east in 1869–70. Additionally, a major extension was made in 1877–79: the two-storey "Arab Hall," built to house Leighton&#39;s collection of tiles collected during visits to the Middle East.</p><br>
<p>According to Aitchison and Walter Crane, the design was based on the palace of La Zisa in Palermo. The 17th-century tiles are complemented by carved wooden lattice-work windows of the same period from Damascus. There are also large 16th-century Turkish tiles. The west wall has a wooden alcove with inset 14th-century tiles.</p><br>
<p>The room also contains Victorian elements. The capitals of the smaller columns are by Sir Joseph Boehm, from Aitchison&#39;s designs. The capitals of the large columns, gilded and carved in the shape of birds, are by Randolph Caldecot. The mosaic frieze was designed by Walter Crane. The marble work was by George P. White. Elaborate decorative paintwork adorns the domed ceiling and in the centre of the floor there is a fountain. The tiles in the passage to the Arab Hall are by William de Morgan.</p><br>
<p>In 1889 an additional winter studio was added to the building. The final addition by Aitchison was the top-lit picture gallery in 1895. After Leighton died in 1896, the contents of the house were sold, including at least one thousand of his own drawings, almost all of which were bought by the Fine Art Society. In 1927 Mrs Henry Perrin offered to pay for additional gallery space. The building was extended to the designs of Halsey Ricardo and the Perrin Galleries opened in 1929. This extension was in memory of Mrs Perrin&#39;s daughter Muriel Ida Perrin, an artist and sculptor who had trained at the Royal College of Art and worked for the catalogue section of the Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco) during the First World War.</p><br>
<h2>Permanent collection</h2><br>
<p>The museum has on permanent display works of art by various members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including John Everett Millais, Edward Burne-Jones and George Frederick Watts, as well as 81 oil paintings by Leighton himself.</p><br>
<p>Some of the most notable oil paintings by Leighton in the collection are:</p><br>
<p>The Death of Brunelleschi – 1852</p><br>
<p>Charles Edward Perugini – 1855</p><br>
<p>A Noble Lady of Venice – c1865</p><br>
<p>Hercules Wrestling with Death for the Body of Alcestes – 1869–71</p><br>
<p>Clytemnestra from the Battlements of Argos Watches for the Beacon Fires Which Are to Announce the Return of Agamemnon – c1874</p><br>
<p>Professor Giovanni Costa – 1878</p><br>
<p>The Countess of Brownlow – c1878–79</p><br>
<p>The Vestal – c1882-3</p><br>
<p>Alexandra Sutherland Orr (née Leighton) – 1890</p><br>
<p>And the sea gave up the dead which were in it – c1891–92</p><br>
<p>Other works by Leighton in the collection include:</p><br>
<p>5 albums and sketchbooks of drawings and watercolours.</p><br>
<p>27 watercolours.</p><br>
<p>54 prints of Leighton&#39;s works.</p><br>
<p>14 items of personal material including documents, personal mementos, embroideries, enamels and caricatures.</p><br>
<p>Several small scale sculptures including: Athlete Strangling a Python (1874) and Needless Alarms (1887).</p><br>
<p>Works in the collection not by Leighton include:</p><br>
<p>Antonio Rossellinos carved and coloured relief: Madonna of the Candleabra, which had been in Leightons collection, sold after his death and re-acquired by the Museum in 2006.</p><br>
<p>G.F. Watts portrait of Frederic Leighton.</p><br>
<p>Luke Fildes&#39;s still life and study for The Widower.</p><br>
<p>Sir Alfred Gilbert&#39;s original sketch model for Eros.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 Leighton&#39;s famous painting Flaming June was loaned to the Museum, and was displayed in the studio in which it was created.</p><br>
<h2>Council arts strategy</h2><br>
<p>The building is run by the Kensington and Chelsea Borough Council. In 2009 Nicholas Paget-Brown launched the Cultural Placemaking initiative as part of the Councils Arts and Culture Policy. He explained that the plan was to build on the work of Opera Holland Park and Leighton House Museum to develop a broader coherent strategy to encourage developers to consider the Councils creative and artistic ambitions when working on a development project.</p><br>
<p>La Malinche mountain, also known as Matlalcueye or Malintzin, is an inactive volcano  located in Tlaxcala and Puebla states, in Mexico. Officially, its summit reaches 4,461 m above sea level, though it is generally considered to be closer to 4,440 m, using GPS measurements. Its height makes it the highest peak in Tlaxcala, the fifth-highest in Puebla, the sixth-highest in Mexico, the 23rd-highest in North America, and the 252nd-highest in the world. Its height above nearby cities varies from 1,908 m above Huamantla, 2,461 m above Villa Vicente Guerrero, 2,221 m above Tlaxcala to 2,299 m above Puebla. The summit is 22.4 km from Tlaxcala, 28.3 km from Puebla, and 118 km from Mexico City. The climate is cold on the summit and mild on its lower slopes.</p><br>
<p>The Tlaxcaltecs named it Matlalcueitl, which translates to " Blue Skirt", a goddess of rain and song, believed to be the local equivalent of Chalchiuhtlicue. The Spanish named it simply Sierra de Tlaxcala ("Tlaxcalan Range"). The current name Malinche or Malintzin, in honor of the woman who helped Hernán Cortés as an interpreter during the conquest of the Aztec Empire, became popular during the 17th century.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Located within the Parque Nacional La Malinche at the border of Tlaxcala and Puebla states, this volcano is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The park is the fifth largest of the 85 peaks in México. It covers an area of 458.52 km&sup2, of which roughly two thirds belong to Tlaxcala and one third to Puebla. The diameter of the park is approximately 24 km.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>La Malinche is an inactive stratovolcano which began to form in the middle of the Paleogene period, 30-35 million years ago. Since that time it has grown through eruptions, the last of which is believed to have occurred ca. 3,100 years ago. It is not a typical volcanic cone, but instead has a number of side peaks like Tlachichihuatzi or La Chichita (4,100 m), Xaltonalli (3,890 m) and Chicomecanoa (3,650 m); as well as two of the most dramatically steep slopes in Mexico: Barranca Axaltzintle to the northeast (which is believed to be the former crater) and Barranca Axal to the south-southeast. La Malinche is mostly isolated from the surrounding ranges; some nearby mountains and hills are El Pinal (3,280 m), El Tintero (2,920 m), Cuatlapanga (2,900 m), Huintitépetl (2,890 m) and Xalapasco (2,750 m).</p><br>
<p>On lower slopes are farmlands which grow mostly field "dent" corn and forests which transition from alders and various types of oak to Montezuma pines and sacred firs with increasing elevation. The upper slopes are zacatonal. The summit is covered by snow part of the year and is considered to be the coldest location in Tlaxcala. On the lower slopes the climate is mild year round, but rainy during the summer months. The soils consist of crushed volcanic rock and sand with an underlying layer of clay and sand called tepetate at an average depth of about a meter. The dark and porous forest soils were formed from volcanic ash. From La Malinche streams flow in all directions forming small gorges in places which fill and run rapidly when torrential rains occur. At the base of the mountain emerge many springs, some of drinkable water, and others of thermal water heated in the volcano&#39;s interior.</p><br>
<h2>Legends</h2><br>
<p>La Malinche shares, like Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, legends about its formation. According to the most famous legend, Matlalcueye was a virgin girl engaged to Cuatlapanga, a warrior who had to go to battle in a remote place. Time went by, and the lover took so long to come back that the girl died of sorrow. When the warrior came back, badly hurt on the head, he received the bad news. He went to cry at her grave and also died, turning into a small mountain. Matlalcueye turned into the huge volcano, with the smaller Cuatlapanga at her side.</p><br>
<p>Another legend about the mountain concerns a reptilian monster that supposedly lived in the mountain and that would come down during the rainy season to abduct children and take them up the mountain to be devoured. Eventually the beast was killed, according to legend, and its head was mounted above the entrance to a house in Puebla that still stands at 201 East Third Street in the historical district of that town.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The park offers a resort area at 3,080 m—"Centro Vacacional Malintzin"—with very comfortable cabins and camping. It is an ideal location to acclimatize and start an ascent of the volcano. There are sporting facilities, a restaurant and a gift shop. Outside the resort, there is also a convenience store and a little "antojitos" restaurant, as well as horses and llamas for riding on the weekends. The access road passes the resort area and continues partway up the mountain, switchbacking most of the way. A hiking trail to the summit begins at the resort area, cutting across the road switchbacks for the first section. The trail then leads into a conifer section at around 3,400 m. The tree line, from where the "false" summit is visible for the first time, is at 3,900 m. After that, a very steep grassland section begins. The ridge starts at 4,200 m and leads to the summit, which is just behind the false summit. The last 100-or-so metres involve a bit of scrambling.</p><br>
<p>It is often cold and very windy above the tree line, so proper clothing is recommended. Crampons and an ice axe are absolutely necessary whenever it has snowed recently - which typically happens a few times each year from December to March. Other than that, the ascent is challenging but not technical. Fit hikers can reach the summit from the resort area in 3–4 hours, but it is best to plan for 5–6 hours with breaks. It is best to start in the early morning and return well before sunset. The alpine police will warn hikers against ascending above the tree line after 2 p.m.</p><br>
<p>There are other more demanding routes starting from the surrounding towns of Huamantla, Ixtenco, San Juan Tepulco and San Miguel Canoa. On September 14, 1968, a group of mountain climbers mainly consisting of employees of the Autonomous University of Puebla was infamously lynched in San Miguel Canoa, after they planned on staying in town overnight because of the adverse weather. The conservative town priest had encouraged the town population to the killing, mistaking the climbers for Communist students. The massacre was later adapted to film by director Felipe Cazals.</p><br>
<p>Steamboat Springs is a small volcanic field of rhyolitic lava domes and flows in western Nevada, located south of Reno. There is extensive geothermal activity in the area, including numerous hot springs, steam vents, and fumaroles. The residential portions of this area, located mostly east of Steamboat Creek and south of modern-day SR 341, are now known simply as Steamboat.</p><br>
<p>The state of Nevada has a Steamboat Springs Historical Marker (#198) situated along the eastern shoulder of the busy Carson–Reno Highway (US 395 Alt.), approximately 1.65 mi south of the Mount Rose Junction (the intersection with SR 341 and SR 431). There were once several mineral spas operating here along Steamboat Creek, with at least one still in business.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Discovered in 1860 by a Frenchman, Felix Monet. In the early days, when the air was cool and calm, William Wright reported that as many as sixty or seventy columns of steam could be seen.</p><br>
<p>Steamboat Springs was once also a depot on the Virginia & Truckee Railroad&#39;s Reno-Carson City line. In 1871, with tracks yet to be built south through the Washoe Valley to Carson City, this temporary rail terminus became an important transfer point for passengers and freight heading up the Geiger Grade on stagecoaches bound for Virginia City and the mines of the Comstock Lode. Once tracks were extended south the following summer to meet the existing Carson-Virginia City rail line, such transfer business fell off rapidly.</p><br>
<h3>Name</h3><br>
<p>Mark Twain wrote in August 1863 ".From one spring the boiling water is ejected a foot or more by the infernal force at work below, and in the vicinity of all of them one can hear a constant rumbling and surging, somewhat resembling the noises peculiar to a steamboat in motion - hence the name"</p><br>
<p>The John Muir National Historic Site is located in the San Francisco Bay Area, in Martinez, Contra Costa County, California. It preserves the 14-room Italianate Victorian mansion where the naturalist and writer John Muir lived, as well as a nearby 325-acre  tract of native oak woodlands and grasslands historically owned by the Muir family. The main site is on the edge of town, in the shadow of State Route 4, also known as the "John Muir Parkway."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Mansion</h3><br>
<p>The mansion was built in 1883 by Dr. John Strentzel, Muir&#39;s father-in-law, with whom Muir went into partnership, managing his 2,600 acre fruit ranch. Muir and his wife, Louisa, moved into the house in 1890, and he lived there until his death in 1914.</p><br>
<h3>Conservationist</h3><br>
<p>While living here, Muir realized many of his greatest accomplishments, co-founding and serving as the first president of the Sierra Club, in the wake of his battle to prevent Yosemite National Park&#39;s Hetch Hetchy Valley from being dammed, playing a prominent role in the creation of several national parks, writing hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles and several books expounding on the virtues of conservation and the natural world, and laying the foundations for the creation of the National Park Service in 1916.</p><br>
<p>The home contains Muir’s "scribble den," as he called his study, and his original desk, where he wrote about many of the ideas that are the bedrock of the modern conservation movement.</p><br>
<h3>Archive and Landmark</h3><br>
<p>The Muir house was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1960.</p><br>
<p>It became a National Historic Site in 1964, is a California Historical Landmark #312 and National Historic Landmark, and is on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In 1988 nearby Mount Wanda Nature Preserve (named for one of John Muir&#39;s two daughters) was added to the Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>John Muir National Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>The John Muir National Historic Site offers a biographical film, tours of the house and nature walks on Mount Wanda.</p><br>
<p>Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site, at Moton Field in Tuskegee, Alabama, commemorates the contributions of African American airmen in World War II. Moton Field was the site of primary flight training for the pioneering pilots known as the Tuskegee Airmen, and is now operated by the National Park Service to interpret their history and achievements. It was constructed in 1941 as a new training base. The field was named after former Tuskegee Institute principal Robert Russa Moton, who died the previous year.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Before 1940, African Americans were barred from flying for the USA military. Civil rights organizations and the black press exerted pressure that resulted in the formation of an all African-American pursuit squadron based in Tuskegee, Alabama, in 1941. They became known as the Tuskegee Airmen.</p><br>
<p>"Tuskegee Airmen" refers to all who were involved in the so-called "Tuskegee Experiment," the Army Air Corps program to train African Americans to fly and maintain combat aircraft. The Tuskegee Airmen included pilots, navigators, bombardiers, maintenance and support staff, instructors, and all the personnel who kept the planes in the air.</p><br>
<p>The military selected Tuskegee Institute to train pilots because of its commitment to aeronautical training. Tuskegee had the facilities, and engineering and technical instructors, as well as a climate for year-round flying. The first Civilian Pilot Training Program students completed their instruction in May 1940. The Tuskegee program was then expanded and became the center for African-American aviation during World War II.</p><br>
<p>The Tuskegee Airmen overcame segregation and prejudice to become one of the most highly respected fighter groups of World War II. They proved conclusively that African Americans could fly and maintain sophisticated combat aircraft. The Tuskegee Airmen&#39;s achievements, together with the men and women who supported them, paved the way for full integration of the USA military.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Moton Field was the only primary flight facility for African-American pilot candidates in the USA Army Air Corps (Army Air Forces) during World War II. It was named for Robert Russa Moton, second president of Tuskegee Institute.</p><br>
<p>Moton Field was built between 1940-1942 with funding from the Julius Rosenwald Fund to provide primary flight training under a contract with the USA military. Staff from Maxwell Field, Montgomery, Alabama, provided assistance in selecting and mapping the site. Architect Edward C. Miller and engineer G. L. Washington designed many of the structures. Archie A. Alexander, an engineer and contractor, oversaw construction of the flight school facilities. Tuskegee Institute laborers and skilled workers helped finish the field so that flight training could start on time.</p><br>
<p>The Army Air Corps assigned officers to oversee the training at Tuskegee Institute/Moton Field. They furnished cadets with textbooks, flying clothes, parachutes, and mechanic suits. Tuskegee Institute, the civilian contractor, provided facilities for the aircraft and personnel, including quarters and a mess for the cadets, hangars and maintenance shops, and offices for Air Corps personnel, flight instructors, ground school instructors, and mechanics. Tuskegee Institute was one of the very few American institutions to own, develop, and control facilities for military flight instruction. In addition to the flight training at Moton Field, the following known sub-bases and auxiliaries were used:</p><br>
<p>Calabee Flight Strip 32&deg;21&prime;50&Prime;N latitude, 085&deg;45&prime;50&Prime;W longitude</p><br>
<p>Hardaway Auxiliary Field (Location Undetermined)</p><br>
<p>Kennedy Auxiliary Field (Tuskegee Institute Field #1) 32&deg;21&prime;05&Prime;N latitude, 085&deg;39&prime;23&Prime;W longitude</p><br>
<p>In late March 1941 Ms. Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, visited Kennedy Field in the Tuskegee area and was taken up in an aircraft piloted by C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson, Tuskegee Institute’s chief instructor pilot. Ms. Roosevelt was a Rosenwald Fund trustee who helped secure financing for the construction of Moton Field at Tuskegee.</p><br>
<p>The first class (42-C), which included student officer Captain Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., began training on July 19, 1941. who served as Commandant of Cadets. Twelve cadets served with him under Captain Noel F. Parrish, a</p><br>
<p>white officer, and 2d Lieutenant Harold C. Magoon, another white officer, who served as the adjutant. The other cadets were: John C. Anderson, Jr., Charles D. Brown, Theodore E. Brown, Marion A. Carter, Lemuel R. Custis, Charles H. DeBow, Jr., Frederick H. Moore, Ulysses S. Pannell, George S. Roberts, Mac Ross, William H. Slade, and Roderick C. Williams. Only five of these cadets completed the flying training at Tuskegee, in March</p><br>
<p>1942.</p><br>
<p>Rigorous training in subjects such as meteorology, navigation, and instruments was provided in ground school.</p><br>
<p>After pilot cadets passed primary flight training at Moton Field, they transferred to Tuskegee Army Air Field (TAAF) to complete their training with the Army Air Forces. TAAF was a full-scale military base (albeit segregated) built by the USA military. The facility at Moton Field included two aircraft hangars, a control tower, locker building, clubhouse, wooden offices and storage buildings, brick storage buildings, and a vehicle maintenance area.</p><br>
<p>Many cadets got their primary flight instruction at Moton Field. Support personnel were trained at Chanute Field in Illinois. Between 1941 and 1945, Tuskegee Institute trained over 1,000 black aviators for the war effort.</p><br>
<p>Moton Field was closed in 1946. In 1972, a large portion of the air field at Moton Field was deeded to the city of Tuskegee for use as a municipal airport which is still in use today.</p><br>
<h2>National Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>Established on November 6, 1998, the National Historic Site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places the same day. The site has a temporary visitor center. Hangar One has been restored and the grand opening of the site was October 10, 2008. The Hangar One Museum is open for tours Wednesday-Sunday. Tours are free of charge to the public.</p><br>
<p>An oral history project, consisting of interviews of hundreds of people involved in the Tuskegee Experience, was completed in 2005 and will eventually be available to the public.</p><br>
<p>In January 2021, the Tuskegee Airmen National Historical Site is scheduled to be depicted on the 56th and final quarter in the America the Beautiful Quarters series.</p><br>
<p>Baratang Island is an island of the Andaman Islands. It belongs to the North and Middle Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The island lies 150 km.  north of Port Blair.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ranchiwalas Island is another name for Baratang Island. Towards the close of the nineteenth century, the city of Ranchi experienced political upheaval. Many locals sought refuge by converting to Christianity with the help of the missionaries there. The British, realizing the future prospects of the forests of Andaman and Nicobar islands, sent the converts to Baratang Island to cultivate crops. The laborers from Ranchi settled there and made new lives for themselves.</p><br>
<p>A lighthouse was commissioned in 1985 at the eastern entrance to the Andaman strait.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the Great Andaman Chain, and with an area of 242.6 km&sup2; it is one of the main islands of the group, a closely set archipelago in the Bay of Bengal, adjoining the Andaman Sea. Middle Andaman is to its north, and South Andaman to the south. Beaches, mangrove creeks, limestone caves, and mud volcanoes are some of the physical features. The islands of Ritchie&#39;s Archipelago lie 14 km to the east. Port Blair, the capital of the Indian Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, is located approximately 45 km from the southern tip of Baratang. Baratang contains the only known examples of mud volcanoes in India. These mud volcanoes have erupted sporadically, with recent eruptions in 2005 believed to have been associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The previous major eruption recorded was on 18 February 2003. The locals call this mud volcano jalki.</p><br>
<p>There are other volcanoes in the area, the Barren Island volcano which is the only active volcano in South Asia, and the Narcondum volcano which is considered to be a potentially active volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Politically, Baratang Island is part of Rangat Taluk.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The island is dissected by the Andaman Trunk Road to Rangat and Mayabunder.There are 2 ferry crosses: "Bamboo Trikery" Jetty and "Nilambur" Jetty.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>There are a couple of villages on Baratang, most noted are Adozig and Nilambur, Rangat.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2011 census of India, the Island has 5691 inhabitants. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 100%.</p><br>
<p>This island is inhabited mainly by the local Jarawa tribes.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Baratang has plenty of private accommodations. Forest and PWD guest houses are also available. Visitors should book well in advance for a confirmed reservation.</p><br>
<p>The major attractions are the limestone caves, the Mud volcano, Parrot Island, and Baludera Beach. The Jarawas, also allure many tourists each year. While driving through the dense forests on the Andaman Trunk Road, it is possible to encounter a Jarawa. Until 1998 the Jarawas managed to keep their distance from the outside world for thousands of years. But a highway running through their homeland which draws several hundred tourists each year makes them susceptible to disease and destruction.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>El Jorullo is a cinder cone volcano in Michoacán, central Mexico, on the southwest slope of the central plateau, 33 miles  southeast of Uruapan in an area known as the Michoacán-Guanajuato volcanic field. It is about 6 miles  east-northeast of La Huacana. Its current elevation is 4,360 ft. El Jorullo has four smaller cinder cones which have grown from its flanks. The vents of El Jorullo are aligned in a northeast to southwest direction. Lava from these vents cover nine square km around the volcano. Later eruptions produced lavas that had higher silica contents making them thicker than the earlier basalts and basaltic andesite lavas. El Jorullo&#39;s crater is about 1,300 by 1,640 feet  wide and 490 feet  deep.</p><br>
<p>El Jorullo is one of two known volcanoes to have developed in Mexico in recent history. The second, born about 183 years later, was named Parícutin after a nearby village that it eventually destroyed. Parícutin is about 50 miles (80 km) northwest of El Jorullo.</p><br>
<p>El Jorullo was first erupted on 29 September 1759. Earthquakes occurred prior to this first day of eruption. Once the volcano started erupting, it continued for 15 years...eventually ending in 1774.</p><br>
<p>Alexander von Humboldt climbed El Jorullo during the Mexican portion of his scientific expedition to Spanish America. When he visited on 19 September 1803, its multiple cones were still smoldering and the air was extremely hot and filled with volcanic gases. He wrote a detailed description of the climb, noting that his face and those of his travel companions were burned. The volcano enriched the local soil and there was considerable vegetation. Humboldt sketched the volcano in the distance, showing multiple smoking cones. Humboldt undertook the climb with his scientific travel partner Aime Bonpland, as well as a local Basque settler Ramón Epelde, and two local indigenous servants, whose names have not been recorded. Humboldt noted their assistance on site. Humboldt also notes that he consulted a 1782 publication Rusticatio Mexicana, by Rafael Landívar, who calculated the height of the volcano and the temperature of the thermal waters.</p><br>
<p>El Jorullo did not develop on a corn field like Parícutin did, but it did destroy what had been a rich agricultural area. It grew approximately 820 feet (250 meters) from the ground in the first six weeks. The eruptions from El Jorullo were primarily phreatic and phreatomagmatic. They covered the area with sticky mud flows, water flows and ash falls. All but the youngest lava flows were covered by this ash fall. Later eruptions from El Jorullo were magmatic with neither mud nor water flows. This 15 year eruption was the longest one El Jorullo has had, and was the longest cinder cone eruption known. Lava flows can still be seen to the north and west of the volcano. The eruption had a VEI of 4.</p><br>
<p>Parícutin and El Jorullo both rose in an area known for its volcanoes. Called the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the region stretches about 700 miles (1,120 km) from east to west across southern Mexico. The eruptive activity deposited a layer of volcanic rock some 6,000 feet thick, creating a high and fertile plateau. During summer months, the heights snag moisture-laden breezes from the Pacific Ocean; rich farmland, in turn, has made this belt the most populous region in Mexico.</p><br>
<p>Though the region already boasted three of the country&#39;s four largest cities: Mexico City, Puebla, and Guadalajara (the area around Parícutin, some 200 miles west of the capital), it was still a peaceful backwater inhabited by Purépecha in the early 1940s. The crater and lake can now be reached by car.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of Santa Maria of Palma , more commonly referred to as La Seu , is a Gothic Roman Catholic cathedral located in Palma, Majorca, Spain.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Built by the Crown of Aragon on the site of a Moorish-era mosque, the cathedral is 121 metres long, 55 metres wide and its nave is 44 metres tall. By way of comparison, the height of the central nave reaches 33m in Notre Dame de Paris, 38m in Reims, 42m in Notre-Dame d&#39;Amiens and 48m in Saint-Pierre de Beauvais, the highest of all Gothic cathedrals.</p><br>
<p>Designed in the Catalan Gothic style but with Northern European influences, it was begun by King James I of Aragon in 1229 but only finished in 1601. It sits within the old city of Palma atop the former citadel of the Roman city, between the Royal Palace of La Almudaina and the episcopal palace. It also overlooks the Parc de la Mar and the Mediterranean Sea.</p><br>
<p>In 1901, fifty years after a restoration of the cathedral had started, Antoni Gaudí was invited to take over the project. While some of his ideas were adopted – moving the choir stalls from the middle nave to be closer to the altar, as well as a large canopy – Gaudí abandoned his work in 1914 after an argument with the contractor. The planned changes were essentially cosmetic rather than structural, and the project was cancelled soon after.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pantokrator  is a mountain located in north-eastern Corfu. At 906 m, it is the highest mountain on the island. At the summit, the whole of Corfu can be seen, as well as Albania which lies a short distance from the island. On particularly clear days it is also possible to see Italy despite it being around 130 km away. At the top there is a café for tourists, a telecommunications station, whose largest tower stands directly over a well, and a monastery. The first monastery on the site was Angevin, built in 1347 but then destroyed sometime around 1537. The current church on the site dates from around 1689, and the current facade was built during the 19th century. It is dedicated to the transfiguration of Christ. To get to the peak, you can either drive to Mount Pantokrator up a series of windy roads from the coast, or walk to the top. If you choose to walk, one of the best places to start is in Old Perithia, Corfus oldest village, where it takes approximately 2 hours round trip. The village of Old Perithia dates back to the 14th century and the Perithians helped build the original monastery using local wood and limestone. The village of Old Perithia  can be seen from Pantokrator and with its 130 house and 8 churches Old Perithia is said to sit at the foot of Pantokrator, The Almighty.&#39; The walk to Pantokrator is also part of The Corfu Trail, an established walking guide around the island of Corfu, although they fail to maintain the paths, so walks such as Perithia to Mt. Pantokrator are now nearly impossible to detect.</p><br>
<p>Camp Lincoln , in Crescent City, California, was a United States military post. It was established June 13, 1862, by the men of Company G, 2nd Regiment, Infantry, California Volunteers to keep peace between the Tolowa tribe of Native Americans and the miners and settlers of northwestern California.</p><br>
<p>When the California Gold Rush began, people from all over the country ran to Gold Country to try to make their fortunes. Likewise in northwestern California, many men headed that way, leaving their wives, children, and homes. The Tolowa were being forcibly resettled in the region and were beginning to take their vengeance on those who stayed behind. Settlers petitioned the Army for protection, but their pleas were not well received by the Department of the Pacific, whose troops were already stretched thin from protecting stagecoach travelers.</p><br>
<p>However, the petitioners eventually got their wish, and Fort Ter-Waw was established. After that was destroyed by the Great Flood of 1862, the troops were moved to Camp Lincoln. In September 1862, the camp was moved six miles (10 km) north of the city to a more neutral position further away from the settlers.</p><br>
<p>During construction of the new location, tensions between the whites and the Tolowa rose even further. Many of the whites wanted the government to evict the Tolowa, but the government did no such action and they began to take matters into their own hands. Settlers burned crops and harassed the Tolowa, who were told to get out or be killed. Approximately 500 Tolowa decided to leave, and the remaining 1,500 stayed only because the Army promised to keep the peace.</p><br>
<p>Although no truce was reached, after the Civil War, the Army could not afford to staff many small posts, and the camp was abandoned in June 1869 and closed for good in May 1870.</p><br>
<p>Commanding officer&#39;s quarters and one barracks remained when the site was declared California Historical Landmark #545 in 1962.</p><br>
<h2>Camp Lincoln wasn't the originally intended location</h2><br>
<p>Historical evidence suggests that the original intention of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was to have the Settlers defended from a location other than Camp Lincoln. It appears that GEO. M. HANSON, Superintendent Indian Affairs had another spot in mind. He wrote a letter on July 2, 1862 to Brig. Gen. George Wright requesting that troops be sent to defend the settlers at Crescent City. However, in his letter he mentions a 160 acre parcel of land loosely known as Fort Dick (later referred to as Russells Prairie) to be an adequate site to defend the settlers. This letter caused First Lieutenant and Regimental Quartermaster W.F. Swasey to be sent a very long distance to evaluate the site of Fort Dick. In his letter, he too recommends it as a good spot. Its not until a third letter arrives from Major James F. Curtis, that he indicates that Camp Lincoln is far superior of a choice and that his inspection of the "Russell place" (Fort Dick) found that it was subject to flooding. That sealed the deal and Camp Lincoln won out over Fort Dick.</p><br>
<p>All three letters were published by the United States Department of War in 1897, but digitized by the University of Virginia in 2008. The letters appear in Volume L of the multi volume series.</p><br>
<p>Office Indian Affairs, Northern Dist. California,</p><br>
<p>San Francisco, July 2, 1862.</p><br>
<p>Brig. Gen. George Wright:</p><br>
<p>Sir: I am just in receipt of information from the Smith River Valley that the troops sent thither have crossed the river and are about settling camp almost in the midst of the Indians, or at least about half way between the two largest tribes, or say half mile from one tribe and a mile from the others. I hope you will order the troops on the south side of the river to be stationed at or near a place called Fort Dick, where U. S. laud and good water can be found in abundance. This will be two-thirds of the distance from Crescent City to the reservation, and serve as protection both to the whites and Indians, who will thereby be kept entirely separate. 1 have the honor to be, &c.,</p><br>
<p>GEO. M. HANSON, Superintendent Indian Affairs, &lt;&c.</p><br>
<p>The second letter written regarding the topic of the site of a fort to protect the settlers came a mere 7 days later. On July 9, 1862. W. F. SWASEY, First Lieutenant and Regimental Quartermaster (Second Infantry California Volunteers) sent a very lengthy letter to Col. F. J. Lippitt at the Headquarters of the District Of Humboldt recommending that the site be that of Fort Dick, CA. Although, not an official US Military Outpost, it was being used by local settlers to defend themselves from the attacks they faced by the Tolowa and Yurok tribes. In his letter, Lieutenant W.F. Swasey goes into great detail about the site and its alternate names, including that of "Russell&#39;s Prairie". This name is briefly mentioned in yet a third letter that actually confirms the selection of Camp Lincoln as the site for the permanent military presence to defend the settlers.</p><br>
<p>On September 15, 1862, a letter was sent to Lieut. Col. R. C. Drum. The letter was sent by JAMES F. CURTIS,</p><br>
<p>Major Second Infantry California Volunteers, Commanding Camp Lincoln, Humboldt Military District. In his letter he describes many things. One thing that is very easy to look over is a mere sentence near the end of the letter where he describes why he selected Camp Lincoln over Fort Dick (Russell&#39;s Prairie).</p><br>
<p>Asst. Adjt. Gen., Hdqrs. Dept. of the Pacific, San Francisco, Cal.-: Sir: I have the honor to report that in accordance with instructions from district headquarters I assumed the command of the U. S. troops in Smiths River Valley on llth instant, and on the following day removed the command (Captain Stuarts company (G), Second Infantry California Volunteers) six miles south of Smith&#39;s River, equally distant from Crescent City, still to the south. The camp is upon dry, sloping ground, an opening in a redwood forest, and upon the main road between Crescent City and the Indian reservation, and where it is intersected by the Yreka and Jacksonville turnpike. Communication with the steam-ship landing will always be open over a good road, and we are sufficiently near Crescent City to afford that town protection from the powerful tribe of Klamaths, as well as from the reservation Indians. Good water, wood, and grazing in abundance. The point has the approval of Mr. Hanson, Indian agent. The name Camp Lincoln is retained and the post-office address not changed. Before selecting this site I examined the proposed Russell place and found it entirely unfit for a camp in consequence of its liability to overflow. During the past winter there was but a single knoll above water there, and that not one-half the area of the plaza of San Francisco.</p><br>
<p>All of which is submitted for the consideration of the general commanding.</p><br>
<p>Very respectfully, your obedient servant,</p><br>
<p>JAMES F. CURTIS,</p><br>
<p>Major Second Infantry California Volunteers, Commanding.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ter-Waw is a former US Army fort that was located six miles from the mouth of the Klamath River in the former Klamath River Reservation and to the east of the present town of Klamath, California, on SR 169.</p><br>
<p>It was a United States military post that was created to guard the Klamath River Reservation and to keep peace between the Tolowa and Yurok Native American tribes and white settlers. It was established in what was then Klamath County, October 12, 1857, by First Lieutenant George Crook and the men of Company D, US 4th Infantry Regiment. The fort was part of the Humboldt Military District headquartered at Fort Humboldt. Most of the fort was destroyed during the Great Flood of 1862 in December 1861 and abandoned June 10, 1862. The garrison was moved to Camp Lincoln.</p><br>
<p>The site is now in Del Norte County and is marked by a California Historical Landmark (#544). Its location can be found from Hwy 101 taking Ter-Wer Valley exit (Hwy 169), going 3.4 mi to the end of the road, and turning right on Ter-Wer Riffle Road. The site is at the intersection of Ter-Wer Riffle and Klamath Glen Roads in Klamath.</p><br>
<p>Maes Knoll  is an Iron Age hill fort in Somerset, England, located at the eastern end of the Dundry Down ridge, south of the city of Bristol and north of the village of Norton Malreward near the eastern side of Dundry Hill. It is a Scheduled Ancient Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, roughly the start of the first millennium BC. The reason for their emergence in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture. The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain. Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze, and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status. Power passed into the hands of a new group of people. Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress burst out into open warfare. But I wouldn&#39;t see them as having been built because there was a state of war. They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed, but this was not the only, or even the most significant, factor in their construction".</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The hill fort, which is approximately 390 x, and 45 ft in height, covering 20 acre, consists of a fairly large flat open area, roughly triangular in shape, that has been fortified by ramparts and shaping of the steep-sided hilltop around the northern, eastern and southwestern sides of the hill. It rises to an altitude of 197 m above sea level, and provides views over the lands it would have once commanded. From here, there are clear views north to Bristol, east to Bath and the Cotswold Hills, and south over Stanton Drew stone circles to Chew Valley Lake and the Mendip Hills. The underlying rocks are Inferior Oolite of the Jurassic period.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It is believed to have been built, around 250 BC, by the Dobuni who were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Isles prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. The name Maes Knoll is derived from the old English word Maerc meaning boundary. The existing scarp slopes were steepened and, on the north-western edge of the fort is an earthen mound, known as Maes Knoll Tump, about 7.5 m above the rests of the fort defences, which is 60 m across and 15 m above a defensive ditch.</p><br>
<p>The later Wansdyke runs west from it along the north side of Dundry Hill and south-east from it.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, a draughty, rectangular, corrugated-iron hut on the top of the tump sheltered Dundry Home Guard soldiers, allowing them to watch for enemy aircraft and potential parachute or glider invasions of Bristol. The flat plateau immediately to the east of Maes Knoll tump had perhaps 50 stone cairns to deter enemy glider landings.</p><br>
<p>The Lusatian Mountains  are a mountain range of the Western Sudetes on the southeastern border of Germany with the Czech Republic. They are a continuation of the Ore Mountains range west of the Elbe valley. The mountains of the northern, German, part are called the Zittau Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The range is among the westernmost extensions of the Sudetes, which stretch along the border between the historic region of Silesia in the north, and Bohemia and Moravia in the south up to the Moravian Gate in the east, where they join the Carpathian Mountains. The northwestern foothills of the Lusatian Mountains are called the Lusatian Highlands; in the southwest the range borders on the České Středohoří mountains.</p><br>
<p>The range is largely made up of sandstone sedimentary rocks leaning on a Precambrian crystalline basement. The northern ridge is marked by the Lusatian Fault, a geological disturbance zone separating the Bohemian sandstones from the Lusatian granodiorite. During the Tertiary volcanic magma streams broke through the sandstone layer and solidified into basalt and phonolite. Several sandstone contact areas were also hardened to columns and distinct rock formations.</p><br>
<p>Both the German (Zittau Mountain Nature Park) and the Czech (Lusatian Mountain Nature Park or ChKO Lužické hory) parts nowadays are protected areas according to IUCN guidelines.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains and hills</h2><br>
<p>The highest peak is the Lausche (793 m). Other notable peaks include the Pěnkavčí vrch (792m), Jedlová (774m), Klíč (760m), Hochwald (750m) and Studenec (736m).</p><br>
<p>Lausche (Luž), 793 m</p><br>
<p>Pěnkavčí vrch (Finkenkoppe), 792 m</p><br>
<p>Jedlová (Tannenberg), 774 m</p><br>
<p>Klíč (Kleis), 760 m</p><br>
<p>Hochwald (Hvozd), 750 m</p><br>
<p>Studenec (Kaltenberg), 736 m</p><br>
<p>Stožec (Großer Schöber), 665 m</p><br>
<p>Jezevčí vrch (Limberg), 665 m</p><br>
<p>Střední vrch (Mittenberg), 593 m</p><br>
<p>Malý Stožec (Kleiner Schöber) 659 m</p><br>
<p>Zlatý vrch (Goldberg), 657 m</p><br>
<p>Chřibský vrch (Himpelberg), 621 m</p><br>
<p>Sokol (Falkenberg), 592 m</p><br>
<p>Töpfer, 582 m</p><br>
<p>Popova skála (Pfaffenstein), 565 m</p><br>
<p>Ortel (Ortelsberg), 554 m</p><br>
<p>Zámecký vrch (Schlossberg), 530 m</p><br>
<p>Oybin, 514 m</p><br>
<p>Lake Marathon or the Marathon Reservoir  is a water supply reservoir formed from the construction of Marathon Dam at the junction of Charadros and Varnavas Torrents near the town of Marathon, Greece. It was the primary water supply for Athens from 1931, when it became operational, until 1959. In 1959 water from Lake Yliki became available, and water from Mornos Reservoir became available in 1981.</p><br>
<p>The area of the lake at the height of the spillway of the dam is 2.45 square kilometres, the maximum depth is 54 m, the lake concentrates water from a drainage basin of 118 square kilometres with an average runoff of 14,400,000 m³ per year in an average rainfall of 580 mm per year, the average inbound volume is 12,000,000 m³ per year and the maximum reservoir capacity is 41,000,000 m³ (effective volume 34,000,000 m³).</p><br>
<p>The dam has a maximum height (from foundation to crest) of 54 m, a maximum width of 28 m at the base and 4.5 m at the crest. Its length is 285 m. The crest is 227 m above sea level, the toe is 173 m above sea level, and the spillway is 223 m above sea level. The spillway disgorges 520 m³/s. The dam is constructed from concrete and is a gravity dam. It is unique worldwide because its external cladding of white pentelikon marble is the same marble used in construction of the Parthenon and the other buildings in the Acropolis. The dam was constructed by the American firm ULEN (which had, in a BOT type contract, the ownership of the water supply company of Athens until 1974). It was constructed to meet the increased water demand caused by the rapid population increase in the Athens area following the huge influx of refugees from Asia Minor during and after the end of Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). The construction lasted from 1926 to 1929.</p><br>
<p>Peel Island  is a small heritage-listed island located in Moreton Bay, east of Brisbane, in South East Queensland, Australia. The island is within the local government area of Redland City.</p><br>
<p>During the mid-19th century, Peel Island was used as a quarantine station for the colony of Brisbane. Sailing ships would anchor to the north of the island, and the passengers would disembark on Peel Island for a quarantine period before moving on to Dunwich on nearby North Stradbroke Island. The arriving sailing ships would be fumigated and scrubbed down with carbolic to sanitise them before they ventured on to Brisbane with the new arrivals. Remains of the old quarantine station are at the southwest corner of the island, where the old well can be found.</p><br>
<p>Peel Island was used as an asylum for vagrants from Brisbane around the start of the 20th century, but the conditions were too harsh and the inmates were moved to Dunwich, on nearby Stradbroke Island. Peel Island was also used as a sisal farm. The inmates would harvest the sisal and manufacture rope which was sold to help fund the asylum. Remnants of the sisal plantations are still visible when walking around the western side of the island.</p><br>
<p>Between 1907 and 1959 the island was a leper colony. It is now enjoyed by many locals and visitors. The island is only accessible by watercraft. Dugongs, turtles, and dolphins frequent the waters around the island. There are often thousands of jellyfish following the surrounding currents, and sharks are known to inhabit these waters. Horseshoe Bay, with its sandy beach, is popular with boating visitors. It is a popular overnight anchorage for sailors, considered by many to be the best shelter from northerly winds in Moreton Bay. Sea kayakers also use the island for overnight stays. The island is known for its natural beauty, with bird and animal life largely undisturbed by pollution. Up to 74 bird species have been identified.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, the island was declared as Teerk Roo Ra National Park and Conservation Park. There are limited facilities in Peel Island; however, there is a toilet block. Tracks which were used when the island was a leper colony can now be used to walk across the island. A feature worth visiting is the old leper colony town, located on the northwest of the island. The leper colony&#39;s housing is currently being restored, possibly for school camps, but there is asbestos in some of the housing used for Indigenous Australians housed there. After the island was decommissioned as a leper colony, it was discovered that the strain of leprosy which infected its inhabitants was non-contagious.</p><br>
<p>The Harry Atkinson Artificial Reef has been constructed to the north of Peel Island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Peel Island is situated in the southern half of Moreton Bay on the east coast of Australia, approximately 20 km from Brisbane, Queensland, and 6 km from the town of Cleveland. The island lies between Cleveland Point and Dunwich on North Stradbroke Island, and is fringed with mudflats, seagrass, coral reefs and mangroves. The island covers an area of approximately 400 hectare, and extends for 1 km north to south and 3 km east to west. Horseshoe bay, running in an unbroken arc along the southern side of the island, provides clean, sheltered waters for swimming.</p><br>
<h2>Peel Island Lazaret</h2><br>
<p>Peel Island operated as a lazaret from 1907-1959. The Peel Island lazaret is important to Queensland history because of its social and political significance in terms of state health policy, serving as a reminder of the conditions in which people lived and worked on the island.</p><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>The lazaret (lazaretto, leper colony or leprosaria) in Queensland was established to isolate those infected with leprosy. The influx of migrants to Queensland after free settlement brought leprosy, or Hansen’s disease, to Australia. Hansen’s disease has had a history of forced patient isolation from society, and Queensland’s Leprosy Act of 1892 was an example of legislation intended to isolate leprosy patients from the mainland.</p><br>
<p>Before Peel Island was used as a lazaret in 1907, it was used for a number of other purposes by colonial and Queensland governments, as well as being occupied by Australian Indigenous people. Peel Island was used for multiple purposes at any given time by the government, but was specifically chosen over North Stradbroke island to permanently establish the lazaret.</p><br>
<h3>Conditions</h3><br>
<p>Particularly under earlier operations of the lazaret, the isolation of Peel Island more resembled incarceration than that of a medical institution for ill patients. In many instances, sufferers were removed from their families and communities without notice or an opportunity to say goodbye. Patients were often locked up or chained by police before they were taken to the lazaret. There have been several accounts of patients being trawled behind a charter ship, isolated on a dinghy en route to the island. Once at the facility, patients sought help from the outside community and the press in order to improve the dreadful conditions to which they were subjected. Because the lazaret was designed around the principle of isolation, each patient was housed in a separate hut, then grouped into three compounds according to gender, race and severity of illness. Each compound was surrounded by 8-foot-tall wired fences which would be locked at night so as to prevent perceived "illicit behaviour" between the patients.</p><br>
<p>In a standard hut, each patient was supplied with a bed, chest of drawers, table and chair. For many years it was prohibited to remove the bodies of patients who had died on the island, making it necessary for them to be buried there.</p><br>
<p>To this day, the site has been preserved, and remains a confronting reminder of the conditions of the lazaret.</p><br>
<h3>Life</h3><br>
<p>Boredom was a real issue for patients on Peel Island. Whilst staff could freely leave the island, patients were confined there - often for many years, without a release date. Patients, mostly men, would often go fishing or do some gardening to pass the days. Most patients had wireless radio sets, and in the later years of the lazaret, films were shown and dances were organised for both staff and patients. Many of these social events led to marriages over the years. Staff would often spend time at Horseshoe Bay, enjoying the beach and serenity away from the centre of the lazaret.</p><br>
<p>Due to the isolation and oft-substandard living conditions, many patients and staff members enjoyed drinking. By the 1950s, the island&#39;s occupants had built a reputation among the wider mainland community for their alcohol consumption and intoxicated behaviour.</p><br>
<p>Although the Queensland Government was unwavering in its policy of isolating Hansen disease sufferers on Peel Island, issues often arose due to lack of adequate funding. Problems such as poor food supplies, inadequate medical treatment and lack of maintenance only increased the sense of deprivation among patients, as well as staff. An Anglican Church of the Good Samaritan was built in the north-eastern corner of the lazaret in 1908, originally for primary use by Melanesian patients. In 1925, the island&#39;s first multi-purpose medical facility was built, and the first hospital building followed in 1937. It was not until 20 years after the opening of the lazaret on Peel Island that the first medical treatment building (a surgery) was erected, and electricity was not available on the island until 1948 – 17 years after it was available on the mainland.</p><br>
<h3>Racial discrimination</h3><br>
<p>There were dramatic disparities between the treatment of non-white patients (Aboriginals, Torres Strait Islanders, South Sea Islanders and Chinese) and white European patients. When leprosy re-emerged in the colonised world, it was viewed as an imperial disease associated with race. This was reflective of the social attitudes of the time.</p><br>
<p>After much criticism of the conditions in former lazarets on both Friday Island (which held Indigenous Australians and South Seas Islanders) and Dunwich Benevolent Asylum (which held white Europeans), the opening of the new lazaret on Peel Island held both white and non-white leprosy patients for the first time in Queensland. This close proximity of inter-racial patients highlighted the inequality in patient care.</p><br>
<p>The lazaret was divided into compounds which separated white and non-white patients. The accommodation and facilities for non-white patients were far less-equipped than those provided for white patients. For the first three years, non-white patients were not provided with any cooking or washing facilities, and their huts were of a far lower standard than those provided to white patients. Non-white patients had to carry their own firewood and water, while white patients had theirs provided for them. At an inquiry into the complaints of patients in 1908, the caretaker of Peel Island highlighted various disparities in the distribution of rations. He stated "half the amount of meat, butter and tobacco allocated to whites was given to coloureds. Unlike the whites, coloured patients were not allocated beer or tapioca." Many non-white patients lived in tents until their huts were constructed. In the early years of the lazaret, the huts in the non-white compound were made of corrugated iron, with corrugated iron roofs and walls. Windows were made by cutting the wall with tinsnips. At first, the floor was merely the existing dirt, which would turn to mud in the rain as there were cracks in the roofs. The floors were later covered in cement. Each hut also often housed two patients, although only built and designed for one. These living conditions were extremely harsh, leaving many non-white patients sick, and it is argued that this had a direct effect on their higher death rate on the island.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of World War II, resources for the number of patients on the island became limited. As a result, in 1940 all 50 non-white patients detained on Peel Island were sent to Fantome Island. By 1945, 40 of the patients had died of tuberculosis leaving further speculation as to the treatment of the patients. Authorities recognised the segregation between the basic standard of housing and treatment provided to white versus non-white patients as early as 1912. However, it was not until much later in the operation of the lazaret that these conditions were revised and consequently improved.</p><br>
<h3>Patients and staff</h3><br>
<p>When the lazaret first opened in 1907 there were 71 patients – 26 transferred from North Stradbroke Island, 30 from Friday Island, and 15 arrriving later from Cooktown, Cairns and Halifax. Over the 52 years that Peel Island was an operating lazaret, over 500 patients passed though its doors. Nearly 200 of these died, while others went into remission and eventually left the island. In some instances, the disease reoccurred, which meant patients had to return to the island, sometimes even for a third or fourth time.</p><br>
<p>Understandably, patients on Peel Island did not agree with the isolation "treatment" policy, and spoke up against the idea. In 1926, 35 patients petitioned to the Premier of Queensland to repeal existing legislation. A section of the petition stated: "There are patients who would astound you by their fine healthy appearance, still they are held in segregation by the cruel and unjust law in existence." Unfortunately, it would be another 33 years until the lazaret on Peel Island closed, and patients could return to their communities.</p><br>
<p>For many of the 52 years that Peel Island was an operating lazaret, it was inadequately staffed. Due to the social stigma associated with Hansen’s disease, and the perception that it was highly contagious, it was difficult to find willing nurses, doctors and maintenance staff to work on the island. It was not until 1946 that the island saw its first resident doctor, despite being an institution for the sick. Before this time, patients would receive a weekly visit by a qualified doctor who would provide basic medical care.</p><br>
<p>Rosemary Opala was a nurse at Peel Island lazaret. Through both her art and writing, Opala became a significant commentator on the lazarets history, its social stigma, and the controversial treatment of its patients. She is also recognised for her work documenting and promoting Peel Islands natural environment.</p><br>
<p>Noel Laddie Agnew was the son of a postmaster’s family, and grew up in Dunwich on Stradbroke Island. In 1904, at the age of only 8 years, he was diagnosed with Hansen’s disease, and was one of many patients transferred from Stradbroke Island to the Peel Island lazaret in 1907. During his time on Peel Island, Noel listed over 75 species of birds that he observed on the island. In 1913, his seventh year on Peel Island, this list was published in the RAOU journal The Emu. A subsequent list was published in 1921 during his 18th year at the lazaret. In 1937, after the disease had slowly attacked his limbs and optic nerves, Noel Laddie Agnew died on Peel Island at the age of 41.</p><br>
<p>June Berthelsen was another patient on the island, having been diagnosed with Hansens disease in 1956. Her memoir, The Lost Years: A Story of Leprosy, documents her experiences as a sufferer of Hansens disease, and details her period on the island between 1956 and mid-1958. She was the only patient to have written a personal account about her experiences, which includes descriptions of her time on the island and the difficult daily living conditions there, as well as her experiences from her personal life and encounters off of the island. Her account describes her relationship with the nursing and medical staff on the island. The memoir mentions the Queensland governments non-payment of a pension to women sufferers of Hansens, while male patients did receive it.</p><br>
<h3>Medical treatments and cures</h3><br>
<p>One of the first experimental treatments for Hansen’s disease was the short-lived drug nastin, which involved the injection of the culture of the bacillus of leprosy. This was followed by the common treatment of injecting patients with oil from the Chaulmoogra nut. Although this treatment was often painful, and there was doubt as to whether it had long-term benefits, it remained a main treatment on Peel Island and around the world for more than 30 years. During this time, many medical professionals believed that a good diet and a stress-free lifestyle was more likely to send the disease into remission. In January 1947, Peel Island patients were treated with the first of several sulfone derivative drugs, which were developed in the United States. These drugs proved the most successful in the long line of treatments for Hansen’s disease sufferers, and from then on, the disease became easy to treat.</p><br>
<h3>Social consequences</h3><br>
<p>Hansen’s disease was believed to be highly contagious, with mortality unavoidable. The Queensland Health Department’s decision to allay public fears about the disease by isolating patients backfired, leading the public to believe the disease was worse than it actually was. Rosemary Opala described the island as "folklore" where "the mystery, however gothic fictiongothic, is so much more romantic and aesthetically satisfying." From the relocation of patients in 1959 to the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service taking responsibility in 1992, Peel Island was left relatively untouched, as some of the original stigma remained.</p><br>
<p>Much criticism has been levelled at the treatment of the patients on the lazaret. Hansen’s disease not only affected the ill, but also their families. As infected patients were sent into isolation, many families were left without a breadwinner; some were driven out of communities by fear and ignorance of the disease, and others found themselves unemployed as word spread about disease in the family. Furthermore, by extension, the carers of the island were viewed by many as a "people apart". Carers were viewed as "do-gooders", resented for their ability to come and go from the island at will.</p><br>
<h3>Closing of the lazaret</h3><br>
<p>Due to the breakthrough in treatment of Hansen’s disease in the 1940s, the need for isolating patients declined, and therefore so did the purpose of the lazaret on Peel Island. In 1959, the lazaret officially closed, and the remaining ten patients were sent to the Princess Alexandra Hospital in Brisbane to finish their treatment. By this time, many of the original prejudices about Hansen’s disease had been overcome, and fear surrounding the disease had somewhat vanished. Today, several drugs are available that counteract symptoms of Hansen’s disease such as nerve damage, deformity, disability and further transmission. Researchers are also working on vaccines to prevent the disease, as well as early detection.</p><br>
<h3>Peel Island Lazaret today</h3><br>
<p>The isolation and limited access to Peel Island has meant that many of the original lazaret buildings still stand in original condition to this day. Fortunately, this means that visitors can gain a unique look into a rare 20th-century institution. However, access is restricted in an effort to preserve the historic remains. As a result, the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service has managed the park since 1992, during which time they have restored a number of key structures, and have worked to make the island a safe place for future visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage listings</h2><br>
<p>In 1993, Peel Island was recognised for its outstanding cultural heritage, and was consequently placed on the Queensland Heritage Register and the former Register of the National Estate. In December 2007, Peel Island was declared as Teerk Roo Ra (Place of Many Shells) National Park and Conservation Park.</p><br>
<p>Oak Lawn or Oaklawn is a historical village in southwest Cranston, Rhode Island. Prior to being named "Oak Lawn" in 1872 the area was known as "Searle&#39;s Corner". The Edward Searle House, built in 1677, and one of the oldest standing structures in Rhode Island, is located in Oak Lawn. The village is known for its annual May Breakfast, a New England tradition that began in Oak Lawn in 1865 as a way for the members of the Oak Lawn Baptist Church to raise money for local American Civil War veterans. The 1855 Herman Melville novel "Israel Potter" is based on the life and adventures of an American Revolutionary soldier who was raised on a farm near present-day Oak Lawn. Oak Lawn is also the site of an important archeological excavation: in the 1950s archeologists discovered bowls and other Native American artifacts, carved from soapstone and dating back more than 10,000 years. In the pre-colonial era the area was populated with bands of the Narragansett Indians known as the "Meshanticut" and "Natick" Indians.</p><br>
<p>Much of the village was designated a historic district by the city of Cranston, and a section of the village, extending along Wilbur Avenue from Natick Road to Exchange Street, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977 as the Oak Lawn Historic District.</p><br>
<p>Roycroft was a reformist community of craft workers and artists which formed part of the Arts and Crafts movement in the United States. Elbert Hubbard founded the community in 1895, in the village of East Aurora, New York, near Buffalo. Participants were known as Roycrofters. The work and philosophy of the group, often referred to as the Roycroft movement, had a strong influence on the development of American architecture and design in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name "Roycroft" was chosen after the printers, Samuel and Thomas Roycroft, who made books in London from about 1650–1690. And beyond this, the word roycroft had a special significance to Elbert Hubbard, meaning Kings Craft. In guilds of early modern Europe, kings craftsmen were guild members who had achieved a high degree of skill and therefore made things for the King. The Roycroft insignia was borrowed from the monk Cassiodorus, a 13th-century bookbinder and illuminator.</p><br>
<p>Elbert Hubbard had been influenced by the ideas of William Morris on a visit to England. He was unable to find a publisher for his book Little Journeys, so inspired by Morris&#39;s Kelmscott Press, decided to set up his own private press to print the book himself, founding Roycroft Press.</p><br>
<p>His championing of the Arts and Crafts approach attracted a number of visiting craftspeople to East Aurora, and they formed a community of printers, furniture makers, metalsmiths, leathersmiths, and bookbinders. A quotation from John Ruskin formed the Roycroft "creed":</p><br>
<p>A belief in working with the head, hand and heart and mixing enough play with the work so that every task is pleasurable and makes for health and happiness.</p><br>
<p>The inspirational leadership of Hubbard attracted a group of almost 500 people by 1910, and millions more knew of him through his essay A Message to Garcia.</p><br>
<p>In 1915 Hubbard and his wife, noted suffragist Alice Moore Hubbard, died in the sinking of RMS Lusitania, and the Roycroft community went into a gradual decline. Following Elberts death, his son Bert took over the business. In attempts to keep his fathers business afloat, Bert proposed selling Roycroft’s furniture through major retailers. Sears & Roebuck eventually agreed to carry the furniture, but this was only a short lived success.</p><br>
<p>Fourteen original Roycroft buildings are located in the area of South Grove and Main Street in East Aurora. Known as the "Roycroft Campus", this rare survival of an art colony was awarded National Historic Landmark status in 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Elbert Hubbard Roycroft Museum, housed in the George and Gladys Scheidemantel House, in East Aurora is the main collection and research centre for the work of the Roycrofters.</p><br>
<h2>Famous Roycrofters</h2><br>
<p>William Wallace Denslow (W.W. Denslow) illustrated The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and had a distinctive Roycroft-inspired "logo".</p><br>
<p>William Joseph "Dard" Hunter was an American authority on making paper by hand, as well as printing using handmade type. He published a number of books on traditional, pre-industrial, techniques for making paper.</p><br>
<p>Skaha Lake, historically known as Dog Lake and originally Lac Du Chien, is a freshwater lake located along the course of the Okanagan River in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, Canada. It has a surface area of approximately 20 km², with a maximum depth of 55 metres. The lake is situated directly south of Okanagan Lake and forms the southern shoreline and boundary of the city of Penticton, British Columbia. The community of Okanagan Falls is located at its southern end, the community of Kaleden lies in the upland area to its west.</p><br>
<h2>History and meaning of name</h2><br>
<p>"Labelled "L. du Chien" (Dog Lake) on Anderson Map, 1867; labelled "Du Chien L." on Trutch maps, 1866 and 1871. Origin unknown. Later, Dog became the official name. Changed in 1930 to Skaha "to agree with the local name," states the Chief Geographer. However Okanagan Indians say "skaha" is not their word for dog, but is that of the Shuswaps, and that the local word for dog is chokowapee. (Parham, 40). Another spelling is kaekuwapa. The local meaning of skaha is "horse". (Albert Millar). That is also the meaning in the Nicola dialect. (W. G. Clapperton)."</p><br>
<h2>Images and videos</h2><br>
<p>The Eugene ONeill National Historic Site, located in Danville, California, preserves Tao House, the Monterey Colonial hillside home of Americas only Nobel Prize-winning playwright, Eugene O&#39;Neill.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Eugene ONeill had won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1936, and used the prize money to build what he named Tao House above Danville. ONeill and his wife lived in the home from 1937 to 1944. By the time he moved here, ONeill had already lived in over 35 places, but he called this secluded house his "final home and harbor". At this home, ONeill wrote his final plays: The Iceman Cometh, Long Day&#39;s Journey Into Night, Hughie, and A Moon for the Misbegotten. Due to a degenerative condition in his hand, he was unable to complete another play after 1943.</p><br>
<p>ONeill and his wife, actress Carlotta Monterey, showed their interest in Asian art, decor, and thought in preparing the home. Outside, Carlotta installed a garden in a zigzag pattern which Chinese tradition indicated would keep away evil spirits. They also planted several trees, including pine, almond, and redwood. The ONeills moved to Boston after World War II.</p><br>
<p>The house was saved from demolition in the early 1970s. Several women formed the Eugene O’Neill Foundation, including president Darlene Blair and executive vice president Lois Sizoo, in order to raise money to buy Tao House, which had been named a National Landmark in 1971. They did so through several fundraising projects, including benefit performances of Eugene O’Neill’s play Hughie featuring Jason Robards. Through their efforts, Tao House was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971, a National Historic Site in 1976, and passed into the management of the National Park Service in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Archive</h2><br>
<p>The Foundation maintains an archive of Eugene ONeill-related material at Tao House (including photographs, playbills, manuscripts, posters, and ONeills original phonograph record collection) and sponsors events such as productions of ONeill plays, staged in the adjacent barn.</p><br>
<h2>Visiting the house</h2><br>
<p>The National Park Service does not publish the address of the property, but it is widely known that it is located near Kuss Road in Danville. A locked gate prevents unauthorized vehicles from reaching the site. The Site occupies 13 acre accessible via car only by private road, so advance reservations are required to visit. Private vehicles are not allowed. Transportation to the site is provided by a twice-daily free shuttle from Danville at 10am and noon on Wednesdays to Sundays and also at 2pm on Saturdays. Reservations are required except on Saturdays when tours are self-guided.</p><br>
<p>Trails from Las Trampas Regional Wilderness also lead to the site. Reservations are also recommended for those arriving for a tour via horseback or on foot.</p><br>
<p>The Rancho San Andrés Castro Adobe is an historic house in California.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was built in 1848–1849 by Juan José Castro. His father Jose Joaquin Castro (1768–1838), came to California as a 6-year-old with his family from Sinaloa Mexico on the 1775–1776 Anza Expedition. Jose Joaquín Castro received this Mexican land grant Rancho San Andrés in the area of present-day Watsonville, California.</p><br>
<p>It had the first dance floor (fandango room) in Santa Cruz County, California and one of the first indoor kitchens (cocina). It is the only two story hacienda ever built in Santa Cruz County.</p><br>
<p>The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places listings in Santa Cruz County, California on December 12, 1976.</p><br>
<p>It is California Historical Landmark number 998. The adobe was severely damaged in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. One wall had completely collapsed, and the house needed seismic retrofitting before being safe for the public. Owner Edna Kimbro sold it to the state of California in 2002. Starting in August 2007, Friends of California State Parks volunteers and the California Conservation Corps began restoration by making 2500 adobe bricks.</p><br>
<p>Almost 100 members of the Castro family held a reunion at the site in 2008.</p><br>
<p>it was not yet opened to the public as a state park, but it is expected to open in 2016 as Rancho San Andres Castro Adobe Historic State Park.</p><br>
<p>The Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site is a preserved home once rented by American author Edgar Allan Poe, located at 532 N. 7th Street, in the Spring Garden neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Though Poe lived in many houses over several years in Philadelphia , it is the only one which still survives. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962.</p><br>
<h2>Poe's time in Philadelphia</h2><br>
<p>Poe lived in several homes in Philadelphia, including homes on Arch Street, on Sixteenth Street near Locust, and on Coates Street near Twenty-Fifth Street. While living in Philadelphia, Poe published some of his most well-known works, including "The Tell-Tale Heart," "The Murders in the Rue Morgue," and "The Gold-Bug". It has been called his most prolific period. In all, Poe published 31 stories during his time in Philadelphia as well as several literary criticism pieces, including his February 1841 review of Charles Dickenss novel Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty. In reviewing the novel, which later inspired Poes poem "The Raven", he correctly predicted the novels resolution before its final serialized installment was published. Dickens is said to have remarked, "The man must be the devil". Poe&#39;s five years in the city have been described as the happiest of his life.</p><br>
<h2>History of the home</h2><br>
<p>The Historic Site is the only one of Poe&#39;s Philadelphia homes which still stands and is located in the now defunct Spring Garden district on the northern edge of Philadelphia. Poe rented the house early in 1843 and is believed to have lived there for about a year or less along with his wife Virginia and his aunt/mother-in-law Maria Clemm. It is uncertain when the family moved into the home, which was then at the corner of Seventh Street and Brandywine Alley In a letter to James Russell Lowell dated June 20, 1843, Poe invites Lowell to visit him: "My address is 234 North Seventh St., above Spring Garden, West Side." Speculation as to which stories and poems were written in this home are unprovable, but suggestions include "A Tale of the Ragged Mountains", "The Balloon-Hoax", and "Eulalie".</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood was then predominantly made up of Quakers. The familys decision to move may have been prompted by Virginias health, as she was struggling with tuberculosis. Her mother, Maria Clemm, maintained the home for the small family. A neighbor later recalled: "Mrs. Clemm was always busy. I have seen her mornings clearing the front yard, washing the windows and the stoop, and even white-washing the palings. You would notice how clean and orderly everything looks." A visitor referred to the home as little more than a lean-to. Poe occasionally had difficulty paying rent, though the landlord, a plumber, was tolerant of this. The family moved out the first week in April 1844 and made their way to New York.</p><br>
<p>Several families lived in the home after Poe until it was purchased by Richard Gimbel, son of the founder of Gimbels department store, in 1933. An avid fan of Poe, he refurbished the home and opened it as a museum. In his will, he left the property to the city of Philadelphia. The National Park Service began overseeing the property in 1978, reopening the home in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Home today</h2><br>
<p>The site combines both Poes former residence and two adjoining houses which were not built until after Poe left Philadelphia. The rooms of the house are left in arrested decay and are not furnished to look like they did during Poes time. The neighboring residences include a welcome area, gift shop, a film screening room, and some minor exhibits. The site also includes a reading room decorated based on Poes theories in "The Philosophy of Furniture". This, the only room on the site furnished to look like the 19th century, is not part of Poes original home and is not meant to suggest Poe had a similarly decorated room. The room includes a complete collection of Poes works, including criticism, and audio interpretations of his work. A statue outside of the home depicts a large raven, representative of one of Poes most famous poems, "The Raven" (1845). The cellar in the house resembles one described in "The Black Cat" (1843), also written while Poe lived in Philadelphia. Though the house does not include any items originally owned by the Poe family, many items are collected nearby at the Free Library of Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>The site is affiliated with the Independence National Historical Park. The site is open Friday-Sunday, 9 AM to 5 PM (closed from Noon - 1 PM) with guided tours (call for information on times) or self-guided tours at any time. Admission is free. Paid membership in the Friends of Poe Society, which also sponsors events throughout the year, aids in the upkeep of the home.</p><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>Responsible body: Indiana Department of Natural Resources</p><br>
<p>Mounds State Park is a state park in Anderson, Indiana (not to be confused with Mounds State Recreation Area (SRA) near Brookville, Indiana) featuring Native American heritage, and 10 ceremonial mounds built by the prehistoric Adena culture indigenous peoples of eastern North America, and also used centuries later by Hopewell culture inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>Mounds</h2><br>
<p>The largest earthwork, the "Great Mound", is believed to have been constructed around 160 BC. The Great Mound is a circular earth enclosure with an internal ditch and south to southwest entrance. The earthworks measure 394 ft across from bank to bank. The 9 ft embankment is 63 ft wide at its base, and the ditch is 10.5 ft deep and 60 ft across at its top. The central platform is 138 ft across and was occupied by a 4 ft central mound 30 ft in diameter. One particular mound at the Anderson Site has a sequence of clay platforms, each deliberately covered by a layer of ash.</p><br>
<h2>Earthworks</h2><br>
<p>The term Earthworks includes any structure made from the earth. In Native American studies, there are three primary types: mounds, circular enclosures, and complexes. All are found in Central Indiana and in the state park. Mounds State Park has a complex of enclosures, both circular and rectangular. There are seven enclosures and four additional earthworks, which have been divided into two groups, the northern complex and the southern complex. The ‘’Great Mound’’ enclosure is the dominant structure in the park and the southern group.</p><br>
<h3>Great Mound</h3><br>
<p>The complex has been dated to 160 B.C.E through 50 C.E. These dates are obtained through radiocarbon dating and some artifacts. A nearby log tomb was found with a platform pipe typical of Hopewell styles from 50 C.E. Post hole remnants were dated to 60 BCE and 230 CE. Radiocarbon dates from excavated material of the Great Mound established 160 BCE +/- 90 for the embankment. The neighboring ‘’Fiddleback’’ Mound was dated to 120 BCE +/- 70.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1900, a series of strange misshapen skeletons were unearthed from similar mounds in nearby Alexandria, Indiana. This brought thousands of tourists from around the Mid-West. In 1910, several locals admitted to stealing chimpanzee skeletons from the nearby Muncie Zoo&#39;s monkey house. In 1915 the skeletons were sold to a local museum which burned down in 1919.</p><br>
<p>What is now Mounds State Park was the location of an amusement park which operated from 1897 until 1929. While the amusement park exploited the native-made mounds, it also helped to protect them by making them a "point of regional pride and a destination," otherwise they may have been plundered or otherwise destroyed. When the Great Depression hit, the property was sold to Madison County Historical Society, which transferred ownership to the State of Indiana, after which it became Mounds State Park.</p><br>
<p>Canoeing is also available in Mounds State Park, on the White River.</p><br>
